The nature of association as mentioned in the Table No. 3 above, which was generally driven by VOs themselves, unravel the fact that with a focus on rural development and women’s empowerment, community has lend its support by providing space for meetings and even setting up of project itself in sites identified by the community.

The VOs have been providing various training programmes to the selected community members especially leaders. They have also motivated them towards actively participating in the intervention process for successful implementation of the programmes.

Community members have assisted the VOs in the selection of the beneficiaries, especially, those falling Below the Poverty Line (BPL) and other economically backward communities. This identification has helped some of the VOs to focus their resource on special groups that would need the interventions more than the others. Field base reports of investigators corroborate this finding and in consonance with the same, benefits derived by low income groups within the community have been observed.

In the process of association between the community and the VOs, community members opined that they have practically assisted in the selection process of other beneficiaries and have also attended various meetings scheduled for discussing the implementation of the projects.

Further, in the area of VOs providing health care services especially mobile clinics, community has jointly organized awareness programmes on the same and has actively facilitated the process of creating the environment for community members to access these services.

Perceived Objectives of the Project by the Community

The community was asked what they thought about the objectives of the various projects. This would greatly reflect on their perception of the organization, projects and their overall interest as regards the intervention within their community. Across the regions, data that emerged reflected positively on the community’s sense of understanding of the individual projects and their overall aims and objectives while at the same time not very aware of the GIA Scheme per se. Most organizations were not very open about their funding source to the community and as the GIA funds were only one of the many funds received by the organizations, organizations did not feel the need to divulge the same to the community.

It is seen in Table No.4 above that respondents across the regions opined that the Sectoral projects on health, education and training were focused on building the community’s ability to bring about socio-economic and political development for the Tribal groups. This was also seen in the context of mainstreaming the community into the larger development processes. Most organizations have also taken care of the fact that while intervening, they should not create a feeling of disrespect for the community’s own culture and traditions. This is important in the light of the fact that some organizations were reported to have unconsciously created situations where what they said was in direct conflict with the community’s beliefs and cultural practices.

Further, data depicts that the impact most felt as identified by the community was in the area of education. They opined that both formal and vocational education has greatly empowered youths of the community. Theresidential schools in particular have provided a congenial environment for quality education and also space for studies. This coupled with the fact that the education is free for most students, has greatly enhanced the capability of the community to further develop. Also, in relation to girl child education, respondents felt that the presence of residential schools and non residential schools has helped controlled girl child labor. The programmes have also improved the level of education of many girl children.

The training programmes were viewed by the community very positively as they recognized the need for skill upgradation that would facilitate greater access to employment opportunities for members of the community. Since some of the VOs have facilitated the processes of the formation of self-help groups and micro credit, the community perceived the same to be one of the objectives of their projects.

Further, it was reported that awareness programmes on agricultural practices had also been conducted by theVOs. Coupled with this, respondents also stated that in the area of health, the VO’s intervention was meant to improve overall health status of the community and also to reduce infant mortality which was reported high within the community.

A point that deserves attention is the fact that most community members perceived most of the projects and intervention carried forth by the VOs as driven by their religious beliefs. While most of the organizations were secular in their outlook and beliefs, yet reports of their religious practices being preached and spread was widely observed and reported.

Identification of VOs Methods of Intervention by the Community

The community reported that VOs had passed on to them information about the projects through local media and at times necessary information has been provided to them directly through the respective villagecommittees.

The intervention methods by the VOs that were noticed and identified by the community were elicited from the community members. This was carried forth in order to unravel the way they see the intervention processes which were directed towards them.

In this context, as observed from Table No 5 above, it was reported across the five identified regions that the process begun with the identification of beneficiaries and those that would directly benefit from the services of the organizations, especially, BPL families. The VOs organized various awareness programmes which include joint-meetings with the community, recreational activities in the villages and also short-term motivational training programmes. They also volunteered their service by supervising the community and adding the needed expert inputs on various issues that would benefit the community.

Most VOs were reported to have sought the help of the community to identify those beneficiaries Below Poverty Line and also had distributed clothes and blankets to them. Further, some of the orphans in the village were also supported by the VOs. In the area of education, the community members expounded that some of the VOs have raised the quality of education provided to the students by providing quality teachers, regular classes, quality study time and also extra curricular activities while at the same time being inclusive of the students with less ability to cope with the same.

Community-VOs Partnership

Issues pertaining to partnerships between the community and the Voluntary Organizations were elicited. This was to capture the quality of relationship between the two identified stakeholders. A point to be noted while trying to understand the same is the fact that the VOs were perceived as being of two types; one, those from within the community and the other, those from outside the community.

Table No.6 above shows the processes and areas of partnership and collaboration between VOs from outside the communities’ vis-à-vis target groups. These relationships were observed and understood to be mutual and cooperative. Moral support to the projects was given by the community to the VOs. There were joint meetings with the community on issues that concerned both. There was participation in awareness building programmes conducted by the VOs and also on the process of identifying those families and individuals below the poverty line (BPL) within the community.

The community also reported that land was given to the VOs for building the various projects of the VOs and have complemented each other in various developmental programmes of the community.

While the same was reported about the VOs from within the community, further collaborations were in the community’s active participation in the monitoring process of the work of the organization and especially in the area of identifying girl child and facilitating and furthering their educational needs.

Attitude and Involvement level of the Community

The level of involvement and the attitude of the community are conceptualized in order to throw light on the willingness of the community to strongly identify with the programmes of the government through the VOs. Table No.7 below displays what emerged from the discussions with the community. Data revealed that in a few places across regions, the community had actively involved itself with the work of the VOs and in some projects the involvement level was very high especially in mobile dispensary and residential schools. Throughout the process of engagement, women’s participation was reportedly more than men and community members stated that they have assisted the programmes in their own small ways, ranging from awareness building to direct voluntarism. The community greatly appreciated the participatory methods used by the VOs to involve the community at decision making level and processes of service delivery. The entire participative process put together does give the community members a sense of ownership over the programmes and projects within their area of habitation.

On the other hand, community members opined and admitted that, at times community’s participation is somewhat vague as they were not very clear about their roles in relation to the VOs’ work. This sometimes leads to misunderstanding and even non-cooperation from the community. While the same was clearly observed across regions, there were, however, no reports of any major conflict between the community and VOs across the identified regions in the country.

Strategy for Ensuring Community’s Participation

Efforts by the organization to create participative space for the community to engage actively in the projects were considered necessary to know. This would reflect on various methods of participation that would finally create accountability systems within the organization. Table No.8 contains the subjective perception of the community members on the measures taken by VOs across the country to involve the community.

Table No.8 above indicates that across regions most VOs did invest a lot of their organizational resource and energy to facilitate such a process. Community stated that VOs have frequent interactions and meetings through camps.

Tribal representatives and leaders in the community and in many occasions the VOs have also seek both permission and advice from the community leaders on various matters concerning their work within the broad geographical parameters of the community. Many VOs participated actively in the community programmes and festivals. This process of participation was however divided between the communities based VOs and VOs from outside the community.

In many cases across regions, community reports that VOs have employed community members in theirprojects and as part of their various programmes, family visits were made to increase the participation level of the community members.

Part Two:

Some Empirical Data Pointing Towards a Theory of Tribal Social Work

The theory of tribal social work is an upcoming framework. We observe the same as a teaching content in the Tata Institute of Social Sciences, and over three years we alsohave published material under a specific Journal- The Indian Journal of Dalit and Tribal Social Work, which began publishing in 2012. In the context of practice however it is to be noted that the same has always been practiced in the tribal communties even though there is resistance to its theory in professional social work. Interestingly those writing about tribal social work (bodhi s.r, 2014) argues that tribal social work is embodied within tribal realities at a very organic level. Their systems are organised around a way of caring and sharing and the organic structures in which such processes are operationalised is embedded in the community system itself. However with time and especially with the emergence of interventions from outside the community, there is a stark fragmentation of these organic structures. There is often a saying among tribes that the presence of VOs and NGOs is a clear indicator of organic structures falling apart. Communities with less NGOs somewhat represents a situation where their organic systems remains intact.

Within this context and framework, data below is presented to show how tribal communities engage with interventions at the level of needs identification, their subjective experience, perception and effectiveness that could point to new ways of conceiving interventions in the context of tribal communities and possibly the theorisation of tribal social work.

Community’s Self-reliance vis-à-vis Felt Needs of the Project

Conceptualizing felt needs of the community in any intervention is imperative in order to qualify gaps in the projects and the overall Scheme. This would also reflect on the ability of the community to feel self-reliant and independent, a key indicator of empowerment. These are crucial for any development process as they reflect upon the inert capability of any community to define and determine its own destiny.

Table 9 captures community’s perception about minute processes related to their empowerment process and the ability to stand independently. Most of the respondents reported that while the efforts of outside VOs are highly appreciated, however it is important to recognize the fact that assisting the community in its voluntary efforts from within and among its members is crucial in its development process. They opined that giving to the community the necessary help to run its own programmes could reduce community’s dependence on outside agencies. There was report across the regions especially by youth groups that some of the VOs were very arrogant and insensitive towards their community.

Further, it was identified by the respondents across regions that most of the work of the VOs is towards supplementing the other crucial programmes of the State and should not become a mainstay in either of the identified sectors. In this context, it was mentioned that in order to tie up the shortage of funds available with the community made available through state funds, VOs supplementary help is imperative.

Throughout the country it was interesting to note that most of the respondents among the Tribal groups cutting across age and gender lines opined that the Tribal situation in the country being dire, there was need to identify tribal communities that needed the help more than other tribe groups within the schedule tribe categories.

Community’s Ability to Anchor Project if Organization Withdraws

Most of the respondents were asked if the community had the capacity and ability to take over some of the projects of VOs. It is learnt from Table 10 below that, most community members responded by stating that they believed that they have the ability as a community to run these projects on their own but would need to be trained in management skills and also on the Sectoral administration.

While this has been listed as strength in Table No.10 the community also opined that there were many other predicaments in the communities taking over such a project. They identified insufficient funds, inability to have a sound network and their own capacity as major impediments. Further they stated that their own socio-economic problems and their awareness about micro management processes was a hindrance.

It must be further noticed that across regions, there were reports that, currently, in most Tribal communities, there is a deep sense of fear and suspicion against outsiders in whatever form they came in, whether through VOs or even state officials.

Community’s Subjective Experience about GIA Scheme

In order to understand the community to comprehend the Scheme as a whole, cognitive perception was elicited about what the think about the GIA Scheme. Table No.11 below indicates that the respondents admitted that their awareness about the GIA Scheme was minimal.

Related to the same they felt that it was important that for any government Scheme and program, the Panchayat or the Gram Sabha should be informed. This initiative should be taken-up by the VOs themselves. While in the process of implementation the VOs should keep the community informed. The government should also take steps that the Gram Sabha be recognized as an advisor group in keeping with laws and acts of the State. For all such Schemes, the Panchayat should be given the responsibility to frame guidelines for all the VOs.

At the same time respondents felt that sometimes community members does find it hard to partake in all the activities of the VOs, but in such a context the VOs should be accountable to the community by informing them about the Scheme and the project that they are implementing.

Community’s Perception of the Effectiveness of Sectoral Projects

Each of the major sectors within the GIA i.e., education, health and training were studied in depth as perceived by the community. The basic premise in which the conceptualization was carried forth was that community’s subjective experience of the overall impact of a program could be captured through their observations of the changes that have come about after the introduction of the project. These observations are conceptualized and further structured in a manner that would reflect upon the relevance, ability to reach out to the neediest Tribals and the overall impact of the project.

Community’s Overall Perception of Residential Programmes

Table No.12 below displays the answers of the respondents across the regions stating that the residential schools had strengthened the overall development of the community. This was indicated by the increase accessibility of the educational facilities, especially, girl students. The same has also somewhat control girl child labour. The health status of the school children within the community has improved with time.

Further, respondents opined that there has been a decrease in the number of children migrating to other areas. There was an increase feeling among the members of an enhanced capability to participate actively in development processes in the context of children furthering their education in the mainstream society. Community members also stated that the components of the residence attached to schools has greatly made the residential schools relevant. Most of the children in the various residential schools have come from remote villages and those BPL families. The organizations had invested efforts to identify and support the very poor students within that community.

Over all the community felt that the residential programmes has graded a sense of increased interest among the community members about education. They further stated that the provision of quality education by some organizations has raised their literacy rate among children in the community. Many organisations organises extra-curricular activities like sports and games and cultural festivals and the whole programme has improved the personal hygiene and behavior of the children. They also stated that many families who wanted to avail education facilities for their children have been able to save money for other needs as their children are charged very minimal fees.

Community’s Overall Perception of Non Residential School Programs

In Non residential schools are identified by the committee members as having made a positive impact on the whole community. They stated that provision of free study material and mid day meal was helpful. Also the interest in education generated within the village by non-residential schools has positively impacted the community.

The non residential schools programmes which are generally restricted to only few nearby villages have permitted the identification of most needy students within that community and village to avail education.

Overall, community members reported that compared to earlier years, many more village children are in school currently. There is also an increased realization about the importance of education which has inturn increase students mobility and job opportunities.

Community’s Overall Perception of Mobile Dispensaries Programs

As per the reports contained in the Table No.14 below the mobile dispensaries as felt by community, has played a major role in reducing health burdens within the communities. They stated that the door to door services provided and free services / medicines have permitted them to save money for other purposes. They reported that mobile dispensaries which were organized by VOs in many villages have become like sub-centre for health.

The VOs were reported to have provided medical assistance through the mobile dispensaries to both the Tribals and other local groups. Most of these programmes were organized on a weekly basis and were focused on poor people to a great extent.

Overall, the community members opined that the free medicines provided timely assistance to pregnant women and facilities provided to the old aged and young children have greatly helped the community. This intervention process has created a changed health attitude of the people.

Community’s Overall Perception of 10 Bedded Hospitals

The concept of 10 bedded hospitals as observed in Table No.15 below was viewed as extremely relevant by the community in the context of health services provided. Most VOs has provided medical facilities at very low cost. This is happening at a time when indigenous and traditional forms of medicines and health are deteriorating especially with regards to treating severe and chronic illnesses. Situating the 10 bedded hospitals nearer to villagers has also reduced the travelling burdens that they generally encountered in the previous years. While at the same time appreciating the intervention in its ability to reduce the health burdens, community members opined that there was a need to provide quality operation facilities, other technical facilities and also costly medicines that were beyond the economic reach of the poorer community members.

Many VOs were reported by the community to have conducted a number of outreach medical camps and have reached out to very poor people within the community. Overall, the community reports that there has been a decrease in child mortality rates and reduced burdens for pregnant women. While at the same time ambulance facilities and regular medical camps are appreciated, it was felt that separate special care for children was imperative.

Community’s Overall Perception of Training Programme

Table No. 16 shows that, the training programmes were perceived to have facilitated the creation of a trained work force in the village from among the community members. The respondents stated that there has been an increased awareness about training programmes by VOs. However, it was stated that some of the vocational trades are not as relevant as they used to be. Training programmes like computer education and shorthand training has greatly enhanced the employability of the trainees. Further community reported that most of the youth were attracted to such programmes compared to the training programmes like plumbing, electrical, radio mechanic, cycle repairing, hand-weaving etc. On the other hand the community members in central India indicated that handloom weaving, carpentry and mat making were still useful and productive.

Most of the VOs were stated as indicated in the Table 16, to have conducted a number of training programmes for the community members. Respondents expound that a number of women were increasingly availing such facilities provided by the VOs. Overall, the community reported that while there is still much more to be done especially in terms of identifying trades that increase employability, yet there was a general satisfaction with the programme. As VOs assist trainees in getting job, community reported that many more reported that those who have availed the training programmes have got jobs.

Community’s Overall Perception of Specific Programme

The perceptions of beneficiaries were elicited about specific projects and the same have been clubbed under specific sectors. Table 17 indicates what the beneficiaries found most useful for themselves after a certain period of the projects. For the educational project it was the residential facility that was appreciated the most. 30% saw it as a benefit for the group while on other 30% saw it as a useful input in the long term in career building. The computer training program was the most appreciated training in the project because it helps in getting job. This is an immediate response to an existing situation in the job market. In service deficient area 50% of the appreciation was for the accessibility of the service while 40% was for the permanence of the service indicating the need for keeping both factors in mind while planning services in such areas. While 70% of appreciation was for “basic needs” as well as “provided free”, a large percentage of 60% was able to see the correlation of these projects with the overall development of the group.

To augment data provided by beneficiaries, they were further requested to give their feedback about the project as individuals who were availing the facilities provided.

In Table 18 the suggestions for the educational projects points out the need for schools in remote areas, followed by the need for improvement in the facilities as well as for higher and technical education. The total lack of services in the areas is indicated by 60% Weightage for the mere presence of schools, for the frequency in the visits by doctors/ services. Quality comes later; at least the service should be there. If training programmes are organised attention should be given to the fact that the trainees need to earn while being trained.

Part Three:

Concluding Thoughts

The rise of tribal social work as a theory of practice is an important addition to professional social work education and practice. Across the world, Tribal systems and Tribes today, stand as the only alternative system / community that are lived examples of possible systemic means and lifestyle paths to withstand and navigate paradoxes confronting today’s realities that seems to unconsciously welcome an impending ecological crisis that promises to explode at any moment in time. Whether it is global warming and climate change, or the question of sustainable development and responsible organic relationship to land, water and forest, the tribes are at the forefront in systemic ways to resist and even tackle such impending disasters. That tribes themselves are being appropriated into the larger capitalist economy at a very fast pace is a fact hard to deny. Nonetheless tribal communities remain to this very day as a system outside, or at times even resisting the technologically driven, unstoppable machine that is capitalism. The violence that we observe across the world and specifically in the Indian context in tribal regions speaks volumes of the way ‘capital’ is appropriating and destroying peoples, cultures and realities. The violence in this case could be seen as a manifest of the struggles of these two systems that seems antithetical to each other. One appropriating and exploiting resources that are needed to keep the dominance and movement of capital and capitalism alive, while the other resisting and confronting to keep minimalist resource use and sustainable lifestyles possible. There is little doubt that the tribes stand no chance whatsoever against the anger of capitalism and its brutal physical onslaught, yet it needs to be noted that this dialectical relationship between capital and tribes needs theorisation and theoretical engagement that brings such tensions to bear in theory and practice at least within professional social work practice.

That professional social work need to stay abrest to new emerging theories to stay relevant at this juncture is something that many professional social workers would not resist nor deny. But would it be possible for social workers to digest social work theory arising out of the lived experiences of tribal communities that are currently experiencing most lethal forms of destruction and displacement, something that has never been observed in their existence?. For an answer to such a question, one would only beg the situation by positing fundamental questions and arguments with lingering hope that in the long run, historical process and history itself will stand witness to such transgression and probably even having to account for by the destruction of its very existence.

Reference

bodhi s.r (2014) Tribal Social Work: Some Reflections on its Philosophical Foundation. Indian Journal of Dalit and Tribal Social Work, Vol 2, Special Issue 1, No.6