Abstract

This article examines the trends in educational status of Dalits in India. The author argues that participatory action research is the most significant research process which exposes the real nature of the variables. The author identified that though dalits face tremendous hardships in their daily life, they showed gradual progress in educational status revealing significant relationship between age, sex, income, type of house and the nature of house. In this reserach the modes selected for analysis is bivariate and trivariate analysis.

Dr Emmanuel Janagan Johnson.PhD is Lecturer in Social Work, Department of Behavioural Sciences, Faculty of Social Sciences, The University of the West Indies, St. Augustine Campus, Trinidad and can be reached at Emmanuel.JanaganJohnson@sta.uwi.edu

…Ambedkar himself regarded education as a fundamental human and civic right vital for the growth and development of the oppressed…

Introduction

The oppression of dalits has been a Social curse for the past 3,000 years. They are segregated in all spheres of social life, in places of worship, education, housing, land ownership, use of common property resources such as wells, village water taps, roads, buses and other public places. Indian society is highly stratified, with many glaring inequalities among different socio-economic groups. The caste system segregated dalits from the rest of the society to such an extent that they were denied even the basic human rights that one must enjoy in order to ensure one’s bare existence. One such area is education where dalits faced tremendous challenges, especially access to quality education. Research focusing specifically on Indian dalits strongly suggests that, dalits families view education as a major avenue of social mobility, yet are denied this basic right.

Discrimination against dalits in the educational system is a widespread problem in caste-affected countries. Alienation, social exclusion, and physical abuse transcend all levels of education, from primary education to University. Illiteracy and drop-out rates among dalits are very high due to a number of social and physical factors. Legislation on the area is limited, and measures that have been taken are often inadequately implemented (IDSN).

This article begins with a brief overview of research concerned with the issues of equality of educational opportunity to dalits. Hallinan (1988) had identified four bodies of empirical work related to the concept of social equality which he explains as (i) status attainment studies, (ii) research on educational effects, (iii) studies of school and classroom organization and (iv) research on school and class room processes.

Importance of education

Education plays a pivotal role in shaping and moulding the personality of individuals. Education in the widest sense of the term is a fundamental facet of all human societies and, thus, should not be narrowly conceived or defined. It occurs under numerous conditions in a multitude of places assuming a variety of forms. Cremin (1977) has defined it as “the deliberate, systematic, and sustained effort to transmit, evoke, or acquire knowledge, attitudes, values, skills, or sensibilities, as well as any outcomes of that effort”.

To achieve Universal Elementary Education ‘The District Primary Education Programme’ (Government of India, 1995) was established in early 1990s in India to cater the educational needs of the children. According to Alexander (2001),’DPEP is one of the most ambitious programmes of educational reform the world has ever seen.’ Dalit communities are given specific attention in the project. DPEP focuses (Pandey, 2000) on improving access, retention, quality, decentralized planning and institutional capacity building. Research on educational stratification suggests that inequality in education between different social strata continues and sometimes even widens in spite of educational growth (Halsey, Heath, and Ridge 1980; Huser and Featherman 1976). Stratification in Indian society is reflected in inequalities in educational attainment across caste, religion, and ethnic boundaries (Anitha 2000; Dreze and Sen 1995).

Educational status of dalits

Galanter’s statement is possibly the best summary of the Mandal Commission’s efforts. Mandal and other Commissions’ reports are part of an array of programmes launched by the Indian Government to uplift those people or citizens of India who in the history of India, have been kept forcibly and systematically at a disadvantage. To deal with this historical evidence, which is an ongoing reality in the Indian society, independent India accepted “equality as a cardinal value” for all her citizens. The truth has been stated right in the Preamble of our Constitution. Also mentioned in the Articles 15 1-3 and 16-1-1-3, offer “equality” as a fundamental right to all citizens of India.But in the same Articles, clauses 15-4 and 16.4 make a special provision for the care of those citizens who are socially and educationally backward, along with the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes. Article 38 under the Directive Principle of State Policy states it clearly that it is the duty of the State to promote the welfare of the people by securing a just and equitable social order. In the same Article in clause 2 it is also said: “That the State shall in particular, strive to minimize the inequalities in status, facilities and opportunities.” The constitutional declaration under Article 38.1 came before the advent of the Indian Constitution. Also the constitution through its Article 46 has placed an obligation on the State for the special care of the weaker sections of people in areas of economic and educational interests and for their protection from social injustice deal with the whole situation. For example, Article 341 takes care of Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes. Article 340 deals with the question of “socially and educationally backward classes”. Article 340 gives power to the President of the people to appoint a ‘Commission’ to investigate the condition of the people of backward classes and also recommended steps which can help improve their educational and living condition.Article 46 of the Indian Constitution states that “The State shall promote with special care the educational and economic interests of the weaker sections of the people and in particular, of the Scheduled Castes and the Scheduled Tribes and shall protect them from social injustice and all forms of exploitation”. Under the Constitution of India 15 percent of the seats in the educational institutions are reserved for daltis.

Participatory action research

Social Work has a long history of articulation of values of social justice, participation and empowerment of marginalized and oppressed. Despite these central founding concepts, social work practice and research has been criticized because of its situatedness having developed along with capitalist expansions of the north through globalization (Dominelli, 2007). It focuses on the individual and (his) ability to adjust to the environment and less on addressing power over knowledge and resources. Ignorance of how groups are silenced with the heavy burden of blame while ignoring the structural machinery which produces inequality. It also focuses on downstream manifestations of dispossession (Fine and Fox, 2010). Thus researchers have been much more powerful than the researched people in many cases. Participatory Research Method aims at participation of the researcher in the research process.

The Role of the Researcher

The role of the researcher is to promote participatory research by using observation skills to collect data and then to process and analyze the information using simple methods, linking the local situation (which the people know best) to the larger external situation (about which the outside may know more), improving people’s access to new information and formal knowledge (ex. technology), introducing local people to experiences from outside their environment, throwing up relevant issues or problems for local people to reflect on and analyze and then assisting them in coming to their own conclusions. The important thing is that the interaction between local people and the researcher must primarily benefit the people concerned by enabling them to articulate and systematize their own thought processes and thereby enhancing their knowledge base so that the can pursue independent actions.

Conceptualizing the Research Process

Participatory research stresses the importance of creating a participatory and democratic learning environment that provides people (especially the underprivileged) the opportunity to overcome what Freire has called the “habit of submission”—the frame of mind that curtails people from fully and critically engaging with their world and participating in civic life (Freire.1978). It is only through participation in learning environments in which open, critical and democratic dialogue is fostered. Participatory research challenges practices that separate the researcher from the researched and promotes the forging of a partnership between researchers and the people under study. Both researcher and participant are actors in the investigative process, influencing the flow, interpreting the content, and sharing options for action. Sirisena (1990) situates a collaborative process as empowering because it:

• brings isolated people together around common problems and needs
• validates their experiences as the foundation for understanding and critical reflection,
• presents the knowledge and experiences of the researchers as additional information upon which to critically reflect
• contextualizes what have previously felt like “personal,” individual problems or weakness
• links such personal experiences to political realities.

The result of this kind of activity is living knowledge that may get translated into action.

Dialogue and Critical Reflection

A key methodological feature that distinguishes participatory research from other social research is dialogue. Through dialogue, people come together and participate in all crucial aspects of investigation, education and collective action. It is through talking to one another and doing things together that people get connected, and this connectedness leads to shared meaning. Dialogue encourages people to voice their perspectives and experiences, helping them to look at the “whys” of their lives, inviting them to critically examine the sources and implications of their own knowledge. In this context, dialogue allows awakening participants’ voices and cultivates their participation as critical, active agents of change. This is particularly essential in the light of many social forces of domination at work in the lives of people from socially and culturally disenfranchised groups.

The role of the researcher in this process is a facilitator of the learning process. The researcher is not an expert who is assumed to have all the knowledge and gives it to the people who are assumed not to have any knowledge. Rather, it is a facilitator who sets up situations that allow people to discover for themselves what they already know along with gaining for themselves new knowledge. In this process, the researcher not only learns from the participants, but also engages in dialogue by posing questions:

• What is the educational status of these communities?
• What are the determining features of the social structure and social relations that contribute to creating their life patterns?
• What choices do they make, and why do they believe those are good things to do?
• What are the possibilities for their experience and action? (Sung Sill Lee S, 2009)

The researcher’s sharing of his or her perceptions, questions in response to the dialogue, and different theories and data invite the participants to critically reflect upon their own experiences and personal theories from a broader context. Ideally, in such a setting, the expert knowledge of the researcher combined with the experiential knowledge of community members, create an entirely new ways of thinking about issues.

This is the meaning of concretization, which Paulo Freire has helped popularize. Critical consciousness is raised not by analyzing the problematic situation alone, but by engaging in action in order to transform the situation. Dialogue acts as a means for fostering critical consciousness about social reality, an understanding based on knowledge of how people and issues are historically and politically situated.

Participatory Communication and Research Methods

Communication is a key methodological concern in participatory research. It draws upon creative combinations of written, oral and visual communication in the design, implementation and documentation of research. Grassroots community workers, village women, and consciousness raising groups have used photo novella (people’s photographic documentation of their everyday lives) to record and to reflect their needs, promote dialogue, encourage action, and inform policy. Researchers use theater and visual imagery to facilitate collective learning, expression, and action. Other forms of popular communication are utilized such as collectively written songs, cartoons, community meetings, community self-portraits and videotape recordings.Critical knowledge development calls for a creative blend of traditional methods of inquiry and new approaches. Use of alternative communication methods in participatory research has both pushed researchers to re-examine conventional methods and opened up the possibility of using methods that previously would not have been considered legitimate.

Methodology

The major objectives of this study is to find out their opinion on the educational Status of Dalits and to analyze the relationship between selected key variables (economic status) and the independent variables (age, sex, marital status, type of house and nature of house). The approach of this study is a mixed method approach that is application of both quantitative and qualitative methods. The samples were selected using quantitative method and the data collection method was purely qualitative participatory approach.

Sampling

Stage One : Two villages were selected from each panchayat using simple random technique adopting lottery method. A total number of 38 villages were selected from 19 Panchayat Unions. The villages falling within the limit of Corporation and Municipalities were excluded.

Stage Two : Voter list of the selected village was obtained from each panchayat union office and kept as a population frame. From each village 5 percent from the total dalit families were selected proportionately using simple random sampling technique adopting lottery method. In all, 502 respondents were selected for the study. However data from two families were incomplete.

Data Collection

The researcher used observation schedule as a tool for collecting the data for the present study, which consisted of 40 open-ended questions. Before finalizing the tools for data collection, the researcher had discussions with field experts and finalized relevant questions and the areas to be explored. Data was collected by adopting participatory observation method. He visited the selected villages during local festival days as all the villagers gather for celebrations, and created a good rapport with the community. He also took part in some awareness programmes and social activities of the village, organized with the help of a local voluntary organization. On some occasions, the researcher also stayed in the villages

Discussing some key findings of the reserach

Bivariate analysis

Data pertaining to the variables were cross–tabulated to know the relationship between the variables.A bivariate table presents data of two variables with row percent. The association between two variables can be explained either by comparing the percent wise. Since the data are nominal and ordinal levels of measurement, chi-square test was selected. In bivariate analysis, the researcher also explains the nature and the degree of association in terms of high, moderate or low. Educational status of dalits is the most significant variable, which determines the social status and brings upward mobility in the hierarchy ladder. If one person in the family is educated, a wholesome transformation will take place in the living condition and the lifestyle of the rural dalits. Education is a key factor, which brings changes, and once dalits get education, they migrate to nearby urban center in search of better jobs

Factors associated with educational status of dalits

There are number of factors associated with educational status (Age, sex, income, type of house, nature of house etc). Based on review of literature, a set of variables, which may have association with educational status, were selected. The data pertaining to the variables are cross-tabulated. The associations between two variables are explained by comparing the percents of respondents in sub-groups and statistical test.

It is very clear from Table.1 that among dalits belonging to high educational status comparatively larger percent (38.4) of the respondents were in the higher age group than lower age group (37.7). Same trend is observed among dalits belonging to lower educational status. In this category, comparatively larger percent (26.4) of respondents were in the higher age group than the lower age group (11.5).Chi square test was applied to examine if the two variables namely age and educational status are associated. The results show that the variables are significantly associated.

X 2 = 24.490 df = 4 P = .000

Table.2 presents that among dalits belonging to higher educational status comparatively larger percent (34.7) of the respondents were male. Slightly reverse trend is observed among dalits belonging to lower economic status. In this category, comparatively larger percent (32.0) of respondents were female. Among the female respondents it is very clear that comparatively more female respondents have perceived low educational status than the female respondents who have perceived high educational status. Among the male respondents, comparatively more male respondents have perceived high educational status than the male respondents who have perceived low educational status. The data further reveals that more male respondents have perceived high educational status comparing with the female respondents educational status.

X 2 = 3.192 df = 2 P = ..203

Chi square test was applied to examine if the two variables namely sex and educational status are associated. The results show that these variables are not significantly associated.

Harshad.Trivedi, (1977) in his study observed some important findings that among the dalit women, change in various aspects of life was generally initiated by men. Polygamy was replaced by monogamy and inter caste marriages of dalit women with high caste men became rare.

It is very clear from Table.3 that among dalits belonging to higher educational status comparatively larger percent (44.4) of the respondents were single than the married (29.0). Slightly reverse trend is observed among dalits belonging to lower educational status. In this category, comparatively larger percent (30.3) of respondents were married than the single (14.3).

X 2 = 17.165 df = 4 P = .002

Marital status plays a very important role in maintaining the educational status comparing with the unmarried and widows. Chi square test was applied to examine if the two variables namely marital status and educational status are associated. The results show that the variables are significantly associated. In other words, it can be concluded that married respondents have perceived high educational status than others.

Table.4 shows that among dalits belonging to higher educational status comparatively larger percent (38.9) of the respondents’ type of family were joint family than those who live in nuclear family (32.0). Slightly reverse trend is observed among dalits belonging to lower educational status. In this category, comparatively larger percent (26.8) of respondents’ type of family was nuclear family than those who live in joint family (23.3).

X 2 = 1.629 df = 2 P = .443

Chi square test was applied to examine if the two variables namely type of family and educational status are associated. The results show that the variables are not significantly associated. Arulmozhi Selvan and Revathi in their study on ‘Socio economic conditions of Dalits’ (1989) highlights that ,out of 100 respondents, 83 percent were illiterates, 62 percent of the respondents said that they had discontinued their education because of poor economic condition. 76 percent of the respondents were not satisfied with their educational qualifications. Majority of the respondents were of the opinion that education was a must to get a job.

Table.5 highlights that among dalits belonging to higher educational status comparatively larger percent (34.3) of the respondents were living in their own house than those who were living in the rented house (28.9). Slightly reverse trend is observed among dalits belonging to lower educational status. In this category, comparatively larger percent (29.9) of respondents were living in the rented house than those who were living in the own house (24.9).

X 2 = 1.459 df = 2 P = .082

Among the nature of house, it is very clear that comparatively those who live in own house have perceived high educational status than those who are living the rented house. A vast majority of respondents living in own house are having high educational status.Chi square test was applied to examine if the two variables namely nature of house and educational status are associated. The results show that the variables are significantly associated. Abbasayulu in his study on ‘The role of education in the Dalits’ (2003) found that education plays a very important role in creating awareness on the constitutional provisions, social service and family conditions. Education becomes a contributing factor in the upliftment of dalit men and women.

Table.6 shows that among dalits belonging to higher educational status comparatively larger percent (35.5) of the respondents were living in the thatched house than those who were living in the tiled house (34.0). Slightly reverse trend is observed among dalits belonging to lower educational status. In this category, comparatively larger percent (42.9) of respondents were living in the other type of houses than those who were living in the thatched house (16.1).

X 2 = 8.012 df = 6 P = .037

It is very clear from the type of house of the respondents ,comparatively more dalits living in tiled house have perceived high educational status than others. Vast majorities of dalits living in tiled houses have perceived high educational status.Chi square test was applied to examine if the two variables namely type of house and educational status are associated. The results show that the variables are significantly associated. Showeb in his study on ‘Education and mobility among Harijans’(1986) found that in the traditionally employed group, 24 percent respondents have only one literate member, 40 percent have 2 to 4 literate members, 32 percent have 5 to 7 members and 22 percent have more than 7 literate members in the family. The traditionally employed person’s family contains a fairly good number of literate persons. A cross comparison of data reveals that literacy is more widespread among the students’ families than the traditionally and modern employed persons.

It is inferred from Table.7 that among dalits belonging to higher educational status comparatively larger percent (42.9) of the respondents were doing skilled work than those who were involved in business (42.3). A major reverse trend is observed among dalits belonging to lower educational status. In this category, comparatively larger percent (37.5) of respondents were involved in doing other type of work, like seasonal jobs etc than others who were involved in skilled work (25.1).From the above table it is very clear that the employment status of dalits those who are employed in skilled occupation have perceived high educational status than the unskilled and business. Chi square test was applied to examine if the two variables namely employment status of Dalits and educational status are associated. The results show that these variables are not significantly associated.

X 2 = 7.263 df = 6 P = ..297

Trivariate analysis

Various research designs require trivariate analysis of data. It plays a very significant role in drawing inferences. Trivariate analysis serves three important functions in social research control, elaboration and prediction. Firstly, whenever the experimental control is not possible, trivariate analysis is used to examine the bivariate relationship to see if the relationship is due to the third variable.Secondly, bivarite relationship is clarified by introducing a third variable.

Finally, trivariate analysis helps to identify more independent variables to account for the variation in the dependent variable.

The researcher is interested to find out the effect of the third variable on the bivariate relationship through the help of Partial cross-tabulation to see if the association is spurious or not spurious. The researcher examined the key variable namely, Educational Status with nine independent variables. All the bivariate association gets over whether the relationship is genuine or spurious. To see if a third variable is affecting the association between two variables, bivariate association was re-examined by controlling the effects of third variable and the chi-square tests were applied to see if the associations are significantly associated (Lal Das,2004). In the preceding sessions we have seen that a set of nine independent variables are associated with the dependent variables that is Status of Dalits. Highlights of the bivariate analysis is presented in the following table.

On examination of the table.8 it is evident that the three independent variables namely age, nature of house and type of house (in bold letters) are significantly associated with of the educational status of Dalits. As such it may be concluded that these three independent variables are decisive variables in analyzing the bivariate association of the four dependent variables. Keeping this in mind, the researcher felt it necessary to re-examine the bivariate association of these decisive variables with four statuses.

To re-examine the bivariate association to see whether the association are non-spurious, partial cross tabulation as a method of control was used. An attempt has been made to find out the effect of the third variable on the bivariate relationships.The researcher considered the dimension namely, Educational Status and its association with nine independent variables. The researcher examined the bivariate relationship by controlling the effects of the third variable and to compare the chi-square test.

From the trivariate Table.9 it is clear that association between the age and the educational status is not affected by the third variable in the case of dalits living in their own houses. ( c 2 =23.829, df = 4. p = .000) . That means there is association between the age and educational status for the respondents who are living in their own houses. On the contrary, bivariate association between nature of house and educational status is affected for the respondents who are living in their own houses. That means the association between the age and educational status is a conditional one.

Trivariate Table. 10 shows that the association between the age and the educational status is not affected by the third variable in case of the two categories of type of house, namely, titled houses and other type of house(tiled c 2 = 24.129, df =4, p =.000, others c 2 = 7.000 df =2, p =.030,) . That means, there is association between the age and educational status for the respondents who are living in tiled houses and other type of houses. On the contrary, bivariate association between type of house and educational status is affected for the respondents who are living in Thatched houses and terrace houses. That means the association between the age and educational status is a conditional one.

From the Table. 11 trivariate analysis, the analysis shows that the association between the nature of house and educational status is affected by the third variable namely type of house. That means the bivariate association between the nature of house and the educational status is spurious. In other words, we can infer that the type of house affects the educational status irrespective of nature of house, that is, whether a person stays in thatched house of tiled house or terrace house does not matter when we consider type of house and educational status.

It is clear from the trivariate Table.12 that association between the nature of house and the educational status is not affected by the third variable in the case of old age dalits. ( c 2 =6.199, df = 2. p = .045.) . That means there is association between the nature of house and educational status for the respondents who are aged. On the contrary, bivariate association between nature of house and educational status is affected for the young and middle respondents. That means the association between the nature of house and educational status is a conditional one.

From the trivariate Table. 13, it is clear that the association between the type of house and educational status is affected by the third variable, in the case of old age dalits. (namely age. ( c 2 = 9.700, df =4, p =.046). That means there is association between the type of house and educational status for the respondents who are aged. On the contrary, bivariate association between type of house and educational status is affected for the young dalits and middle age dalits. That means the association between the type of house and educational status is a conditional one.

The trivariate analysisin Table. 14 shows that the association between the type of house and educational status is affected by the third variable namely nature of house. That means, the bivariate association between the type of house and the educational status is spurious. In other words, we can infer that the nature of house affects the educational status, irrespective of type of house, that is, whether a person stays in own house or rented house does not matter when we consider type of house and educational status.

From the trivariate analysis, it is very clear that the association between the nature of house and educational status is affected by the third variable namely type of house. That means the bivariate association between the nature of house and the educational status is spurious. In other words, we can infer that the type of house affects the educational status irrespective of nature of house, that is, whether a person stays in thatched house of tiled house or terrace house does not matter when we consider type of house and educational status.

Social Work Intervention

The present participatory action study reveals that more than half of the respondent’s educational status has not improved. The professional social workers could help the dalits to enhance their status by applying social work methods such as social casework, social group work, community organization, social action etc.

More number of voluntary organizations can work for the development of dalits in rural areas and the social workers can conduct awareness programme in order to create awareness among the rural dalits on the need and importance of education.

Participatory approach is highly suitable approach to find out the actual problems of the rural dalits and forming of more self-help groups will help social workers to sort out the problems faced by dalit communities.

Social workers should come forward to do more systematic research with innovative ideas; to develop egalitarian societies. Student with Community Development specialization should be actively involved in sensitizing the Government machineries to implement more number of programmes for the benefit of the rural dalits by creating infrastructure facilities and make available basic amenities.

The educated should find out the ways to break through the fogs of illiteracy, ignorance and neglection against the dalit people. Let us stop giving yesterday’s solutions for today’s problems. Let us work together with the sharpened vision, oriented mission and prompt action for the whole improvement of the status of dalits.

Recommendations

Special measures shall be adopted by the Government of Indiaon dalit communities in order to ensure their enjoyment of human rights and fundamental freedoms, in particular concerning access to education.

National and local governments should take effective measures to reduce dropout rates and increase enrolment rates among children of dalits at all levels of public and private schooling.

Government should take concrete steps to eradicate the existing prevalence of caste-based discrimination in schools, includingstereotypical and demeaning references in e.g. school books;

Ensure inclusion of children of affected communities in schools; anddisseminate general information about the importance of non-discrimination and respect for affected communities in the entire education system.

Government should take all necessary measures to remove obstacles, including child labour, which keep children from regular full time education. Governments should also pay particular attention to the need of providing adequate education to illiterate children and adults who have not had any formal education.

Governments should enable and improve educational and professional training for Dalit girls and boys so they can move to other professions of their own choice. National and local governments should promote a public campaign to raise awareness both among the public and among government officials, teachers, and media practitioners on discrimination based on work and descent. Areas of attention should not only include the print and broadcasting media but also alternative avenues of information dissemination, such as local oral information through theatre, songs, etc. as well as information via the internet.

Conclusion

The article reveals that although educational status of dalits have marginally improved, yet it has contributed immensely to growth of the dalit community towards improving quality of life especially in relation to their working conditions. The struggles of Dalits themselves seems fundamental both in the realm of a social re-awakening and of development. One could conclude that without activism and struggle from the community itself, current structures that ‘legitimately’ marginalises cannot be broken and altered. Progress in this case becomes merely an imagined idea with no real material change. In this context it is an established fact that education, especially critical education play a vital role in the dalit struggle to emancipate themselves from chains of historical oppression and in the process attain improved economic standing and work leading to social mobility.

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