ABSTRACT

School drop-out, Illiteracy and lack of educational development it is a common phenomenon of Gadachiroli District of the Maharashtra. And Dhanora is one of the vulnerable in terms of SC/ST educational development. SSA report 2010, shows that in Dhanora block school dropout and illiteracy rate is high because of problems in implementation of educational provision, programs, schemes and community based practices. The purpose of the study is to explain the social interfaces in education among tribal children based on theory of Structuration, researcher try to understand the ‘tribal community’ as an agency that how tribal culture is influenced to the ‘structure of formal educational’ and vice-versa. In this study, the researcher has used qualitative research method and case study as a researcher design. For this study purposive sampling strategy has been used. The data is collected from the household levels through interviews and moreover the in-depth group discussions were also carried for collecting data. The findings of the study reveal that how social interfaces in education among tribal children affected their formal education. And how structure and agency influence each other? Vulnerability, lack of awareness, problems in implementation of formal educational mechanism these factors can be explore in this research. This study has brought up tribal community perception about formal education and creates the interfaces in between community and formal education.

Introduction

In this present study researcher want to explore social interface in tribal education in Dhanora block. While field survey, researcher found that many tribal children are discontinued their education and mainly their socio-economic as well as cultural environment is responsible for this discontinuity of education. That’s why researcher get interest to find out the reasons behind this phenomena as well as tribal’s understanding about formal education. It is interesting to know their ideas about the phenomena of ‘education’ from their perspectives as well as how these ideas are influenced to their formal education. Though education has the personal concern in modern civilized society, it has a social relevance in tribal society. It is interesting to know the role of community, as an agency, which it plays in the development of institution of education.

Education status of primary and middle education Dhanora block of Gadchiroli

The types of schools in Gadchiroli can be classified into Government schools (Funded and managed by Zilla parishad) Ashram Schools(Residential schools managed by dept of Tribal Affairs) Private schools (Funded and managed by Private agencies/Societies) Partially Aided Schools (Pre defined percentage is funded by Government and managed by private agencies/societies) Fully Aided schools (funded by Government and managed by private agencies/societies) Navodaya Schools(Funded by Government of India(Ministry if HRD and managed by Navodaya society) The total no of schools in Gadchiroli in all categories are 1935.

The bottom 5 Talukas (blocks) in district i.e. Dhanora, Etapalli, Bhamraghar, Korchi, Aheri have over 72.4% of population from the SC/ST communities (In district the propulsion is 49.5%). The high population of these communities with low Education In-dices (SC: 0.513 and ST: 0.463) could be a contributory reason for the low district Education Index. Gadchiroli ranks 19 in the dropout rate with 34% drop out rate. (SSA 2010, page no.16) 4. In the Dhanora block has 233villages with 80% tribal population. It has 46 villages are without primary school within 1 km. and 147 villages without UPS(Upper primary school) within 3 km.(SSA 2010, page. no.11) 5 .

Table 1 : Enrolment & Out of school children

(SSA, 2010; page no. 14) 6 .

Table 2 : Drop Out Rate of Primary and Upper Primary

(SSA, 2010; page no. 20, Gadchiroli Drop out Statistics) 7.

Theoretical framework of Social Interfaces: The Role of Structuration

The concept of ‘interface’ conveys the idea of different types of encounter between individuals/communities/other actors with differing interests, resources and power. Studies of interface encounters aim to bring out the types of discontinuities that exist and the dynamic and emergent character of the struggles and interactions that take place, showing how actors’ goals, perceptions, values, interests and relationships are reinforced or reshaped by this process (Long, 2001) 11 . Also, interfaces contain within them many levels and forms of social linkage and discontinuity. As per the Long, ‘ studies of interface should not therefore be restricted to observing what goes on during face-to-face encounters, since these interactions are in part affected by actors, institutional and cultural framework, and resources that may not actually be physically or directly present. Hence, although the methodology of interface studies focuses upon specific social interactional processes, the analysis should situate these within broader institutional and power fields (Long, 1989) 12.

Various definitions are talking about interfaces in technological perspective. In this study it comes as a social phenomenon. And as a theoretical concept of social interface is defined by Long in 2001 “ A social interface is a critical point of intersection between different life worlds, social fields or levels of social organization, where social discontinuities based upon discrepancies in values, interests, knowledge’s and power, are most likely to be located. 13

The present studies will explore the data social interfaces in formal education among Gond tribes gathering how the theory of Structuration. Social life is more than random individual acts, but is not merely determined by social forces. Anthony Giddens suggests the proponent of the theory that human as a agency and social structure are in a relationship with each other,(It can be individual, group of two or more than two people, community) and it is the repetition of the acts of individual agents which reproduces the structure and demand for bring change in structure. This means that there is a social structure – traditions, institutions, moral codes, and established ways of doing things; but it also means that these can be changed when people start to ignore them, replace them, or reproduce them differently. So keeping in mind Structuration theory and components of the present study, here researcher want to know how this theory relevant in terms of tribal community and educational structural phenomenon. And that’s why researcher want to explore the social interface in education of tribe on the base on how tribal as a agency and formal education as a structure affects and influence to each other in the context of Gond tribe in Dhanora block, Gadachiroli.

Conceptual framework :

From above conceptual map we can see how various factors contributed to social interfaces in Tribal education. Both agency and structure influence to one another. So here researcher is trying to bring tribal community as an agency and formal education as a structure create by the state which influence tribals formal education at the individual and community level of the society.

So, we have to understand that how the community based cultural and institutional factors, including tribal value, beliefs, norms and Sanctions, tradition, knowledge, technology and livelihood, play the role as an ‘agency’ to influence to the ‘structure’ of formal educational. It is assumed that the school education creates new kinds of value system, interest, knowledge and power in the community as well as change to existing structure. The bearing of agency and structure working with Cooperation’s and conflict within the structure and agency if there is continuity and discontinuity in school going tribal children of the community. The impact of interface of school education and tribal cultural factors is reflected within the identity of the individual or community. Thus, this study helps to present the tribal perception about formal education in the arena of their life.

Government schemes and program’s for tribal educational development

As directed by the government of India, in 1975-76, the villages where more than 60% of the population was Adivasi were constituted into Integrated Adivasi development projects (ITDPs). There were 16 such government approved ITDPs in Maharashtra. Subsequently, the village where the adivasi population was only marginally less than 50% were also constituted into additional ITDPs and these were calls the additional adivasi sub plan (ATSP) blocks/projects. The state has been divided into 24 integrated tribal development projects mainly concentrated in the TSP, ATSP, MADA and Mini-MADA areas; each ITDP project is headed by a project officer (N. Kamble, 2007) 35. As above mention various government schemes, programs, policies are exist for tribal development, and when we talk about educational development in the context of Maharashtra so some of the specific schemes describe below.

Tribals and their educational problems :

The Problem of tribal education has been found to be the external constants are related to problems and difficulties at levels of policy, planning implementation and administration. Internal constraints refer to problems associated with the school system, content, curriculum, medium of instruction, pedagogy, academic-supervision, monitoring and teacher-related problems. Their set of problem relates to social, economic and cultural background of tribal Psychological problem of first-generation learners.(K.Sujata-1998) 62. There is common agreement that the family background and parental cooperation for education is not favorable. Education conditions of most tribal families are miserable. Lack of time, lack of books, and resources along with lack of parental interest in schooling their children is the greatest hurdle.

The school environment and teacher behavior is satisfactory; the tribal students get equal chance in participating the games, sports and other activities. The facilities provided and the assistance extended by the government does not reach to the student fully. There are lapses at teachers’ level. The complaining students are threatened. The poverty, illiteracy and social backwardness of parents are a hurdle in the education of the tribes. Even local leaders do not support the cause of student. Students feel that they are required to work for money lenders against loan raised by their parents or fore fathers. In hostels, negligence by warden is chronic which causes suffrage of students in low quality of food, in-appropriate arrangements such as lighting, cleanliness etc. majority of the girls reflect their dissatisfaction towards hostel arrangements. More than 55% boys and girl feel that they neither get any support from anywhere nor they get a fair treatment in admissions to the schools. (N.N.G. Mathur, 1994 Page no.-86) 63.

Research Methodology

The study is based on a social Structuration approach, when we see that how tribal communities construct the meaning of education in their day-to-day life-world. The research design is qualitative in nature that adopts a case study method. It is assumed that case study as a research design, would helps to explore in-depth the social construction of educational processes among tribes. It also helps to explore the nature of social interfaces that emerge in the context of formal education among the tribals.

The key objectives of the study are to understand: The socio-demographic characteristic of tribal households in Udegoan and Mendha (Lekha) villages respectively, To study: The tribals’ understanding on the purpose of formal education with respect to schooling in Udegoan and Mendha (Lekha) villages respectively, To analyse the various factors that influence the quality of school education among tribal children in Udegoan and Mendha (Lekha) villages respectively, To examine: the role of the state in the provision of formal education to tribal children in Udegoan and Mendha (Lekha) villages respectively.

Research Question:

Following research question are emerging on the based on reports, pilot study, literature review and from gaps in literature about the social interfaces in tribal education in Dhanora block. What are the socio economic and demographic characteristic of Tribal community which influence the formal education?, How do tribal Communities look at (Construct) education?, What are the various factors that affect the quality of education? , What is the role of state in insuring continuing of education?

Dhanora block of Gadchiroli District is a field area of this present study. As researcher mentioned in introductory part, Dhanora is located at northern part of Gadachiroli District. In this block 70% population is belong to Gond tribe. Researcher selects two villages, which are 100% tribal dominated villages for case study, i.e. one is Udegoan and other one is Mendha (Lekha). Udegoan is 18 km away whereas Mendha (Lekha) 3 Km away from Dhanora, which is a big town and headquarter of Dhanora block. As per the SSA report of 2010 and Maharashtra Government Report 2009, in Gadachiroli District, school drop-out phenomenon is rapidly increased and percentage of school drop-out is high in Dhanora as well as Bhamragarh block. Researcher carried out a pilot study of Dhanora block and afterward selects Udegoan and Mendha (Lekha) for this present case study of social interfaces in Education among Tribal children in Dhanora block.

In this present study, tribal villagers from Udegoan and Mendha (Lekha) take participation in interviews. For this study, thirty household are included from each village and thus total 60 household are extensively studied. Besides that, for getting intense understanding of the research issue interviews, researcher take the interviews of ten School Dropped-out children (each five from Udegoan and Mendha (Lekha) village, eight teachers (four primary school teacher, three middle and one high school teacher) and two NGO workers. In order to determine the sample size principal of saturation has been used in this present study.

Socio- Demographic Characteristic of tribal household :

The chapter deals with the background of the respondent, including their Geographical, Social, Economical background. The socio-demographic profile of the respondent will help to understanding of the experience of the respondent. The profile contains information about the sex, education, occupation, economy of respondent.

Table 3 : Number of Respondents of the household level

For avoiding opinion difference or biases within the domain of gender population, researcher balanced the participation of male and female. Women could explore their thought about their children education; it was full participation from both the side. And they were happy to talk with researcher because they can talk in Marathi. Respondent said that before some years they were not able to talk with outside people, but now they can talk. And especially those parents were educating so response of that respondents help to researcher to get data for present study based on their experiences and attitude.
In this study 10% respondent from 18 to 25 age group. 46%, from 26 to 35 age group, and 36% from 36 to 45 age group. And 6% from 46 to above 55 (Table No. 2).

Out of 60 respondent 35% are illiterate, 18.3% were studied in primary school, 11.7% have done middle school and 31.7% respondents took high school( many respondent left school after 8 and 9 class, very few passed 10 class), very few reach above high school education.
Figure Show that female respondent is more illiterates rather than male respondent. But illiteracy in Gond tribe respondent very high. It show that tribal respondent above high school education status is poor. As per the data it indicates that school rate is high in high school. Most of the parents reached to high school but after primary school many parents did not go to middle school education. Female respondent are more vulnerable in terms of not going to school.

It indicated that out of 60 household 75% family monthly income is between 500 to 2000. And 25%, 2000 to 4000 earn in month. And these 75% household in below poverty line. Which affects also an educational phenolmenon of tribal children.

From this data we can understand, out of 60 household from 11.7% household children are not going to school. From 28.3% house hold only one child goes to school. And 60% household 2 and 3 children go to school.

Out of the 60 households, children in around 28 households have dropped out of school. 10 households have reported that at least one child of theirs have dropped out of school. 12 families reported that at least two children of theirs have dropped out of school. From the surveyed households, a total count of 47% in school drop-out was reported.

Student Perception :

Students, who not go to school regularly or leave school, are not explaining the reasons of their behavior. They keep silence on this issue or they ran away if some asked such question to them. Some students said that they are willing to go to school but not willing to stay in ashram school. But, some children honestly said that they like do agricultural work and spend most of the time in forest and farm. Many students are complaining about their language and food problems, transport and teachers problems, and even though their low capacity of accommodation with syllabi and other fellow students as well as school environment. Specially girls said that their parents do not want to send them alone and not give admition in ashram school alone from childhood. They also do not like to live there. One 5 th class student who left school, her name ‘Anjali’ in Udegoan, she said her friend’s(Aarati) mother do not want to send her friend(Aarati) to school in Dhanora, so because of that she also left ashram school. Her father and mother refuse to send her because she will be alone there.

Communities Perceptions on Formal Education

The analyses of community perception on the purpose of formal education it gave can the broader framework to understand social interfaces in tribal education. It also helped to understand how tribals as an agency influence the larger structure of education. Researcher analyses the data as given below.

As per the tribal communities suggested, the purpose of education for their children was to learn reading and writing. They want that their children to understand Marathi as well as English. They felt that these are important strategies for getting job or accommodate themselves with the lifestyle of the contemporary world. Also they believe that Marathi and English would help them to get their legal rights as these are the official language of the state. They are also concerned about the future of their children and think that if their children will not go to school, they will remain illiterate like them. They also fear that this creates illiteracy led exploitation. In addition they also believe that formal education will help their children to contribute to agricultural in all effective manners.

The tribal household also believes that education contributes to wisdom. According to tribal people of Udegaon, education is necessary for them and their children to know more about world. And they can get job and make their life better like others. They also observe that their children going to school in an effective manner. And this was the serious disability for them previously. Today they are able to communicate with forest officials and police officers in Marathi and thus they get connected themselves with the governance system around them. They are able to get due advantage from system as they are able to communicate in Marathi. Now these children are able to read the documents and help their parents to get right amount of money during Patta Season and MGNREGA work. In addition they feel that the skill of writing, reading and talking in Marathi has not only helped them to deal with the day-to-day life but also in generating the knowledge as most of the available literature is in Marathi language only. They thus feel formal education as a source of their empowerment. It is also a reflection of Structuration where individual engage and the social structure are mutually influencing one another through education. In the context, the tribal households do not consider education the necessary condition for their livelihood opportunity, as they depend on forest for their livelihood.

They earn money from forest products and small land holdings. However, their necessities are limited to food, shelter and clothing. Simplicity in necessities thus do not create any complexity for them and thus satisfaction level is much higher amidst scarcities of critical resources like electricity, drinking water and pacca approach road to village. However their view is changing. Now, new generation, especially youngsters have taken up small businesses, like panthela, grocery shop, general stores, etc. and therefore they feel the need education for accounts, and other business exchanges.

Some tribal household observe that skills and formal education, both are important requirements in contemporary society for survival. However the focus needs to be more on enhancing agricultural skills for their children. However today school education is give less important to skills. Agricultural skills more eventual than school education for survival.

The tribal parents, children that there will not get any job after education as corruption will penetrated within the system and this corruption is prevent them to get a job. They strongly agreed to the fact that no one can get a government job without bribe. Therefore, According to the tribal education is not the necessary condition for getting job, is significant money is the main and necessary condition for selling a jobs. Thus, they believed that need only that level of education is significant by which they can run their livelihood. The knowledge of Marathi language and preliminary mathematics are thus the only important subjects for them. They also know one can achieve these skills by the tenth standard. Thus, they prefer not to send their Childs more than tenth standard. Corruption is thus main issue that a rises while engaging in the discussion with them, as the hurdle for education.

Some tribals believe that after providing education up to tenth class, their children would be capable of helping them in their farms for getting more production. Apart from this formal education can also provide necessary livelihood enhancements skills. They know some small businesses other than farming, however very small amount of people turns toward these occupations.

They don’t know more about the educational facilities that are provided by government to them. They thus fear to send their children to city for higher education as they are poor and they not have capacity to bear the financial burden. Thought they know the importance of higher education in getting government job, their poor condition, and many time ignorance of schemes provided by the government and fears of corruption system stop them to get higher education or motivate them for getting formal education outside their village.

The knowledge of the tribal household about occupation is no extreme so and limited to teaching jobs in police force and class-four forest services. They know the importance of formal school education and Marathi language as the condition of fetching a job. They do not know about competitive examinations, jobs in corporate sectors and higher education institutions like, TISS and JNU, etc. As I previously noted, they knows the practice of bribery (popularly termed as ‘donation’) in selection of lower grade officials and education fields. It is learn that in the appointment of school-teacher and peons in forest departments, school-management or forest officers take huge bribe and only those candidates are getting the jobs who have the capacity to pay them. Therefore, they not only know the importance of education but they know the importance of bribing as a ritual as well. Yet one more fear in those children may quiet agriculture as main occupation due to the influence of formal education.

Moreover, if one wisher to do any decent jobs that factor handsome salary, they have to leave their village. Now days, tribal children are going to nearest city, like Gadachiroli or Nagpur, for getting some work or job. People do not want to leave there native place. However they do not have any work there. Although, they are not willing to send their children to the city, they are not capable to bear the burden of poverty. Therefore, they are force to migrate from their village for earning but not for learning.

Udegaon have a primary school only. So villagers send their pupils to nearby Ashram shala or schools. Many students learn in Chatgaon, 3 km. away from Udegaon and others are studying in Ashram shalas in Rangi, which is 11 away and in Girola, which is 8 km away place. Some students so going by walk and someone bicycle to go to school. The main tar-road i.e. state highway is 3 km away from Udegaon and thus it is not affordable to them. Parents preferred nearby Chatgaon School than Ashram shalas as their children also help could help them in housework or in farms duly leisure time. The influence there is much less migration due to schooling, which is quite unexpected as per existing life rather.

Many parents are said that they speak with their pupil in Marathi, because they want to give practice as well as get practice from them. They feel that, as they speak with them in Marathi, their children are get familiarize with Marathi language and this step will create interest in learning or reading of text books. An old person said that he ask to read the books to his son-in-law because he want to give practice to him as well as this practice will boost his confidence.

According to Kashinath, “Girl education is very important, that’s why he sends his daughter to school because I think that when girls get education so they make their family educated.” Also he said that because of formal education girls can do their household work very properly manner and innovative way. And that’s why he motivates to his daughter for going to school and study.

Factors Influencing Quality of Education :

Following analyses gives a broader understanding about factors influencing quality of education based on various perception in the context of tribal education.

Today, this study has found that when children get admitted in schooling for first time, they affects the quality of education, however this has been adverted to a great extent by the Anganwadi and primary teacher. Tribal students are taking admission in school at right age, thanks’ to the effort of government in setting up Anganwadi in villages, the Anganwadi teachers are allocated with the prier responsibility of these admission. As a child compels two and help year of age, the Anganwadi teachers approaches the parents for admission. After these, children are later promoted children to primary schools. Associated with this, yet another factor that influence qualities of education are in continuity. The Anganwadi and primary teachers are responsible for distribution of government aids to these children, be it nutrition food and scholarship to the girl child. The government also runs a midday meal programs for these schoolchildren through Anganwadi and primary schools. This schemes has also attracted student to schools as they get more healthy and tasty food when compare to their home food.

A significant factor that affects the quality of education is consumption of alcohol, even by children. Alcoholism is traditional practice for the tribal household. They need raw liquor. Ex. Mahua-daru for all their traditional religious practices. They use it as a holy/sacred liquid while worshiping to Persapen, the Gond deity. They use Mahua-daru in the family programs like marriage ceremonies. They use it while dancing Rela. During earlier days, when Gotuls was used for young children as night-hostels, the habit of alcoholism was very much prevalent in these youngsters also. However, as the , Gotul has lost its importance over time, today and it remains as community centre or is used for meetings with government officials. The village panchayat of Udegaon banned Mahua-daru consumption as well as its production. However, villagers get Mahua-daru from nearby villages easily. Indicating the limitation of such practices, villagers said that while worshiping they allow the limited production of Mahua-daru and drinking of this sliquor is allowed only for adults. However, the reality is different. Some participant did agree that children are also consume such liquor and they drop out from school. They leave school from middle of the education due to alcoholism.

The present study has also identified significant relationship between pre-marital sex and school drop-out behavior. Gonds are having the liberal value system for women. They do not Practice hard-core patriarchy and they give much liberty to their women. Pre-marital sex is not labeled as a stigma for women or man and they consider it as a requirement from nature. The Girl or boy is free to choose his/her life-partner within his/her own community. They have the tradition of Gharghusi, where girl is starting to live at the house of the boy to whom she like and want to marry. After giving birth to children, they marry with one other. Gotul was the traditional example of live-in relationship for young boys and girls. After the contact with outer world, these values are weakened to some content. The researcher has found that the pre-marital sex has affected school education of their children. Also a Girls and boys go to forest alone for gathered food or behind to their cattle many times, they get the opportunity to involve in sexual relations with the opposite sex. The desire for intimate relationships force them away from their school education. Once the girl becomes Pregnant she then become the Gharghusi and boys’ school education is also affected as he will be burdened by the responsibility of marriage or Gharghusi. Parents also comments that marriage of girls/boys would start from home but fail to reach at school as they hide themselves in forest beyond their parents. As mentioned earlier, there is a decline in such practices, these days due to interface with the outer world.

Girls these become ‘little mothers’ or ‘little wife’ and boys becomes ‘little husband or father’ from their childhood and they get training from their father or mother. This tendency is prevalent in tribal families, which resultion in absenteeism from schools. Also the girl is vested with the responsibilities of taking care of her younger brother or sister after her mother (as a little mother) or taking care of home by washing cloths and utensils (as a little wife). Similar to take care of the boys. The plough to field after his father (as a little father) which raise the tendency of absenteeism. The responsibility of family is burdened them before marriage and education gets secondary preference than these responsibilities. In the words of young boy in the village, “from my own experience, myself and my three sister slipped going to school as were being prepared for marriage. As he did not have enough money, our aim was to earn enough money for marriage. Due to such family responsibilities me had to drop out of school”. (This statement given by respondent).

The medium of instruction also has its own impact on quality of education. Previously it was hard to learn in Marathi. As they were not familiar with Marathi and they knew only the Gondi dialect. Now they prefer to adopt Marathi as the language of communication. However, they are not fluent in Marathi. Parents do agree that they learn Marathi from their children and their children give exposure to their parents. However, parents not have more knowledge of Marathi and are not able to help their children in their study due to lack of knowledge of standard Marathi. On other hand, Gondi language does not have the rich word power which these restrict it to become the medium of education. Today Gonds realize that Marathi is essential than Gondi language for getting jobs or information or knowledge. Interesting by wide acceptability of Marathi within Gond community, many tribal children have failed in Marathi. They describe ‘Marathi’ as hard as English or mathematics. While talking with them, and as per the teacher’s observations, children do not have the rich word power or rich vocabulary of Marathi language and they only know the day-to-day use words. A teacher from Chatgaon School described the problem appropriately. He said that tribal students know Marathi dialect and not the Marathi language. Thus, these students are not able to understand the subjects logically due to poor performance in Marathi. So the dilemma of medium of education is unresolved because Gondi language has less vocabulary and not always available as effective learning medium. On the other hand Marathi is not easy to them as this is the mostly a second generation which gets the ability of communication in Marathi. Thus, after failure in tenth class, specifically in language, students do not dare to give examination again or join the eleventh class after passing re-examination, which leads to school dropout.

Udegaon is the naxal-affected village and have only primary school. Students then have to join to Chatgaon School or Ashramshalas in distance places. Buses are available on main road, which is 3 to 4 km from village. Therefore, they go to school by walking or by bicycle. As the researcher previously explained, this distance creates. Affect the continuity of education. Parents lose their control over their children which again lead to engagement into premarital relation and school dropout. School in distance place creates hurdle within the girl’s school education specifically as many parents are not willing to send their girl child alone in distance schools.

The tribal community has a very casual attitude toward schooling. If a student fails in his exam, he never goes back to school. Failure in 10 th standard meant that schooling is over for that particular child. Moreover no one motivate him/her for re-appearing the next examination and continuing the school. Students are more interested in playing and engaging other works. Such as farming. On other hand, parents are also not much interest to force them to go to school or appear in the next examination. They are pretty satisfied on the attitude of their children as they help them in faming and other household, thought it is at the sacrifice of their school. The children take advantage of this attitude and bunk school. Children dropout after seventh or eighth standard of schooling. Most of the children have failed in Marathi or English language and after that they never return to school for their studies. The School curriculum is not so easy. Most of tribal students are not able to adjust themselves with that syllabus. The words, which are mainly used in books, are not familiar to them. Thus, students lose their interest in learning. A parent said, “My son leave school after he failed in the 10 th stander, and my daughter did not want to go to school. She left school after fourth standard because she is not interested in her studies. However, my younger daughter wants to go to so we send her. Now I do not know, why she is not going, she also has stopped going to school. They are more interested in agricultural work, do not like to study and we also need their help in farming.”

The gonds are thus not much motivated for education. Initials they agree. However they prefer their children to be involved in agricultural work as they feel that agriculture is the only and most authenticated mode of livelihood. They focus themselves on material gain only because they give priority to their daily needs and thus agriculture work or forest-centric work gets priority over schooling. For, achieving the reading and writing capacity is enough than higher learning and this attitude creates limitations to their education.

Those parents, who are aware about schooling, are expected that teachers should teach properly their children. Teacher are vested with the responsibilities of guide them and create interest about learning. Even though they are aware about governmental facilities like nutritious food, books, uniform, pocket money, sanitation facilities, etc. for their children. The emphasis on the role of the teacher is expected to play active role in fetching these facilities for their son or daughter. As they know about the facilities in Ashram shalas, they expect more from the Ashram shala teacher. Some parents know about the computer education and they expect that these schools should provide computer education to their children. Parents do not know about the study and thus they expect more from the teachers.

Thought the tribal parents are not that aware and sincere about the education of their child, it doesn’t mean that ignored them completely. Though, these are phase of transformation and for some families, it is the first generation who entered into the school boundaries. So, it is impossible to expect more awareness about schooling. In such social-cultural background, their non-ignorance of their child’s schooling shows the inclination toward schooling. They not take their child with them in any family program or market within school-time. But they take their children with them on their farm or forest for collecting forest products on Sundays or holidays. One more significant observation is emerges that mainly grandparents are taking keen interest in the schooling of their grandchildren. They take them to school and contact with their teachers for their school development. Sign of changes are appeared as few parents said that they not forced to their children for help in farming or sometime they de-motivated them to do so. They shows their concern for education, but for them also education/higher education will be the matter of their children’s interest and it is up to him/her only. These parents are ready to support to their students for education but not interested to motivate them properly or force them to study. As per a respondent, Mr. Bisen Topha, said “ I tell to my child that if he go to school regularly, I will give him some reward. I will get some gift from market for him for his regular school attendance.” Gond tribals are ready to send their children to school but they do not want force to their children to go to school. Because they think that if they will force, children will run away to forest or his/her interest of school learning will be declined.

Parental Monitoring and schooling: Most of the parents do not go to school to know the progress of their children. They give the reason that why they are going to school if they do not know more about the institution of schooling. The teacher is held responsible for schooling and monitoring. They think that they do not have any role or space in this process. Therefore, on the issue of monitoring of their children, they are keeping mum or ignore to give answers. Those respondents who are educated and fall in the age-category of 20 to 35 years have shown their little interest on this issue and they said that when they get time, they went to school and asked the teacher about the progress of their child. Also, if the teacher met them on road, they would ask him in are informal ways about any problem of their school-going child. Though, the school management committee of the village panchayat plays a significant role, it is insufficient as meetings are not held frequently. In meetings with teachers (in this management committee), tribals due to respectful fear do not ask the questions to the teachers. Researcher observed that peoples did not have time as they are engaged the whole day in their farming or collecting forest-produce when teacher is available. When they come back to the village in the evening teacher would have left to his home. Tribal are happy, when their children goes to school and when they get food, uniform and other facilities. These things are visual reinforcement to send their children to school, when compared to non-visual aspects such as the progress in education of child. The latter, they are not comprehensible fully to the parents.

Level of education is big question that what is the aspiration of student or parent about the how much education they want to take? Repeatedly this question arises and answer never comes. Conscious parents leave this issue up to their child and other parents are satisfied with reading and writing ability of their pupil. As per government norms, no student has to fail up to ninth standard, so they reach in tenth standard if not leave school in between that. But, many of them failed in tenth standard and thus, higher school dropout shown in records. But real school dropout never exposed due to obligation of government norms. So, when we see that most of the tribal students are passed ninth standard (it is compulsory to pass him/her) but failed in tenth standard. Very few students are passed tenth exam and reached in eleventh standard. I cannot found graduate person in this village.

Quality of education in village school: when we say about the quality of education of tribal students, two aspects are emerged from it. First aspect refers the views of parents. Parents declared that they do not more about the curriculum and teaching, they are not able to say single word about education. But they are happy that their pupils get the facilities of food and uniform and thus schools are good. Second view refers to the teachers as they are the active elements of that process. Teachers said that they try to best on their level to teach and to motivate to tribal students. Teaching is multi-face system. Quality is depend on facilities and responsibilities which government provide. Government give many responsibilities including mid-day meal, dat collection for census and other planning, etc. which are time consuming and thus it deteriorate the quality of primary education not in tribal area but in whole rural sector. Teachers do not have time to develop him/her or concentrate on teaching or monitoring. Researcher observed the routines of teaches in Udegaon village and found that it is true to much extent. Third aspect is emerged from little students and these students are loved to their teachers as they give food, uniform and pocket-money to them as well as teachers are play with them.

After tenth, many of them turn towards job oriented courses than plain graduation. The motto of education, for them, is to get the job and thus they preferred to join the Industrial Training Institutions (ITI) or other Vocational Courses. Girls are chose nursing training course which is recently available in nearby Chatgaon village. They do not know more option other than these trainings. They are unaware about Competitive Examinations and so no one person is appeared to these examinations in that village. Newspaper media is not available in this village and they are depending on television media only. So, whatever they know about carrier opportunities, are know through television channels. But they mostly avail entertainment channels and it hard to understand the language of these media as the language of media mainly dominated by English.

Every community has a specific culture which is most valuable for them. Socialization process cultivates this culture within their community members through various traditions, ritual or customary practices. The socio-psychological position of any person is determined by this culture as values or norms give shape to ways of thinking or behavioral patterns of that community. And every community is proud for their culture and they try to protect their culture. Gonds are not the exception for that. They try to protect their cultural practices but they except the changes to some extend also. As per observation and discussion with them, they accept that they should know the Marathi language than their Gondi language if they want to develop themselves or communicate with other communities. They are accepting not much fundamentalist approach for this language issue. They are ready to accept the migration of their children from village to cities but they have reservation that their children should not forget their culture. Now they are accepting the formal education as a essential requirement of their life, but they have fear that their son or daughter should not marry with other caste person. Their approach toward schooling is changing but pace of this change is much slow. One old respondents shows his fear as he observed that educated boys and girls are not willing to participate in Rela, which is a community dancing and thus these practices will be ruined in future due to education. Educated persons like to see television than participate in traditional entertainment or cultural program.

Polo and Gotul, these are a socio-religious institution in tribal community of Gond. Every month, they organize a community meeting where all women and men are coming together that are called Polo; and take decisions on various socio-religious or familial issues by consensus. In Udegaon, tribals limited their activities of polo and they use it for decide the day of worshiping of their daity, i.e. Persapen only. Gotul is used for meeting place of such Polos. Nearby Mendha (Lekha) village use this tradition for their development very effectively. For Mendha people Polo is not only a socio-religious institution but also they develop it as a political institution also. Gramsabha is nothing but Polo for them. They discuss upon family issues, forest issues, land, NREGA issues, etc. but they never discussed on the issue of education as Devaji Tofa, the leader of Mendha told us. So, schooling issue is not supported by Polo. (Elaborate how formal education is still not a key aspect of their life world)

Most of the respondents do not have contacts with other communities or caste other than their caste. Only those who learn in Ashram shalas or do some small business have such contacts. Their life world is limited within the periphery of their village only. The world of women is again reflected to narrow boundaries and their life limited up to their house and farming work. Udegaon is a fully tribal village and only one family, the Anganwadi teacher’s family is different one. This is a migrant family and stay in this village for government service purpose only. As this Anganwadi teacher said, “A These Gond person does not have the much contact with others and thus they not find any motivational factors for education. Though, my son and daughters are get education from this village only and now they are completed their education up to post-graduation. But these people do not learn any lesson from them. I try to motivate them by showing the example of my children, but it is hard to motivate them as they are very satisfied within their village periphery and not have many needs.” Thus lacks of contact seize them within their village and cultural periphery. (Be critical. you are contradictory)

Tribal communities are very close to their cultural identity and that determine their social, political, religious, educational identity. Because all the things determine by cultural institution within community. Like Polo, Gotul, Rela and their language. So according to respondent now their children are going to forget their language and they said that that is not wrong because for them now Marathi is very much important, tribal community are changing according to their needs, and when external factors affect to their material life like formal education, forest right and land, transport system, communication factors etc. but till now many respondent not able to identify and conceptualize what is identity, because the concept not valid for them fact that they said that they do not know because of education they are going to forget their identity, but when researchers ask about their institutional based question so they explain they are going to change and their children are going to forget many cultural activity because of formal education, and they like also but most of the people not ready to leave their agricultural work because they believe that this is the main resources for survival for them. And they think that their children should work in farm and also get education and using that knowledge they can develop and change their life.

Teachers’ perception – factors Influencing Quality of Education:

Researcher met with school teachers of Dhanora and Chatgaon schools, those are mainly high school teachers, and discussed about educational abilities or capacities of those tribal students to whom they teach. While in-depth group discussion teachers expressed their views and share their observations. They observed that the Intelligent Quotient of tribal students is not less than any other student and they have the capacity to grasp the lessons which they learn, but they are not concentrate properly in the study. They take much interest in sports and other activities than their subject study and thus they are remaining poor in writing and reading skills. They are able to talk Marathi but they are facing problems in reading and writing skills as standard Marathi is different from Marathi dialect, which they talk. Teachers complaining that these tribal children are very irregular in school and do not complete their homework regularly. They are engaged in their farming or cattle rearing and thus they ignore school homework or study. This ignorance of study is the main cause of their lagging behind in the area of school education. Another problem which raised by school teachers are that tribal students are not bold in their behave and they always become the victims of inferior complex. They are shy or feel inferior and not dare to ask questions to their teachers if they are not understand the issue. Even though, they are not take participation in extracurricular activities like social gathering, one-act-play, dancing, etc. as per them, they (teachers) used different teaching methods for better understanding, but irregularity in class create hurdles. Teachers said that they have their own limitation, they cannot shout on students, not beat them, not force them, not punish (Physically and mentally also) them because they are bound to government rules and not want to lose their jobs. Thus, they lose their control over students.

Whereas primary teachers said that tribal children come regularly and take interest in learning. Village primary teacher of Udegoan observed that the students of Udegoan are good in Mathematics and Marathi, as well as they are good in drawing. The researcher observed that teachers are maintained class environment very creatively. Udegaon teacher share her experience and said that after 4 th class when their student goes to another school for middle school / high school education, they start to neglect schooling and their family pressurized them for help in agricultural work or taking care of younger brother and sisters. A student not take interest as their school is far away from their village and go every day by walking, is not possible in every season, so students start to ignore schooling. Lacks of vehicle or public transportation and seasonal works, students are compelled to stay in the village than attending the school. Moreover, its’ happen in every tribal village not only Udegoan or Mendha (Lekha). Thus, school dropout is increasing in high school level.

High School teachers said that, when they go to villages for admitting to these tribal students, people asked them that whether they got job after this school education. They asked them that why they educate to their children if they not have money to buy the government or private sector jobs after providing this costly education to these children. They not see the direct benefits of this education. Beside that, they are interested in forest work or other low work, which is easily available to them. Teachers experienced said that tribal people satisfied in primary education of their children. Very few students come regularly to school and take interest in study. In both villages, Udegaon and Mendha (Lekha), some students passed 12 class examination, viz. Manisha Daro (Udegoan), Vanita Usendi, Krishna Daro, Rupali Dugga (Mendha Lekha).

Roles of the state

As per constitutional provisions for SCs and STs, these students get the scholarship and other provisions at school level which not only helps them monetarily but this small amount of motivate them for learning. But many tribal people not know about these provisions and government machinery fails raise the communities’ awareness on the same. For the ground level government officers are not sensitive toward tribal issues. The tribals also do not have the daring to ask them about these provisions and enter if someone asks; officers will not give any response to them. For instance Maharashtra the State’s Tribal Development Corporation creates many provisions and plans for tribal students, e.g. free bicycle to tribal student whose school is minimum three kilometer away from village. But most of the tribal students and their parents do not know about it. Those who know this provision and apply for that, not get a bicycle even after one year. The officers will not give away response to the question on the status of their application. So they are disappointed from government machinery. Even though, in Ashramshala students do not get monthly scholarship or monthly stipend (a special provision for tribal girls). Another problem they face that is the problem of legal documents. Most of the tribals do not have caste certificate and other documents which is the prime requirement for getting facilities. Lack of knowledge of modus operands for getting documents generates a series of problems and ultimately they leave their granted facilities. For many families, this is first generation that entered into the school and thus, they are exploited by agents in government offices and in schools. Thus, many tribals shows their ignorance about scholarship and other facilities which are given by government to these tribal students.

Most of the Gond tribal children get education in Ashram shalas which are nearest from the tribal zone in Dhanora block, like Girola, Murmadi and Sode. These students are staying in the Ashram school, but some students are staying at their homes and travel daily to attend the school. Parents said that Ashram shala teachers have contacted them for the admission of students in their school and assured them for providing all kind of facilities to their children if they admitted their children in these Ashram shalas. Previously Ashram shalas have done better job and many people got job after their education. But now-a-days parents are not interested to send their children in those Ashram schools because (as parents and student complained) these Ashram schools are not working properly and they not provide sufficient and good food as well as other facilities like monthly bhatta. Teachers are not bothered about development of students and even though, health care practices are very poor in Ashram shalas. Control mechanism is very poor and thus, students are absconding from schools. Parents complained that teachers do not communicate if their pupil is absent in school or he falls sick in school. Also fore them poor monetary to take admission in those Ashram shalas. Very few parents send their children to other schools, apart from the ashram school. Thus, many students left school after 8 th or 9 th class, and very less number of students passed 10 th standard examination.

Identity and education: Tribal communities have affection for their cultural identity including their social, political, religious, educational identity. This identity is flowing through the vein from Polo, Gotul, Rela and language. So according to respondent, now their children are in the way of forgetting their language; and they said that it is not wrong because Marathi is very much important than their dialect and so, tribal community are in the process of transformation. This transformation is a need for them for fulfilling their future requirements when external factors like formal education, forest right and land, transport system, communication factors etc. are affecting to their material life. But still now, many respondents are not able to identify and conceptualize that what is identity as this concept (of identity) is not valid for them due to ignorance and education contribute in forgetting these identities. After asking the questions regarding their institution, they explain that they are in the process of change and their children are ignoring their own cultural due to formal education. They are accepting to these changes though most of the tribals are not ready to leave their traditional agricultural or forest work as they believe that these are the main resources of survival for them. They are thinking that their children should work in agriculture farm and forests and also get education for getting knowledge which can develop and change their life.

Contextual Realities

On the basis of data analysis, the following key findings emerge within the study.

Vulnerability of Tribals: The tribal communities are more vulnerable. They live in their own ‘life world’, which is much closed due to eminently thick forest and lack of connectivity with outside world. From these two villages, 75% households are living under below poverty line, whereas 25% household earn near about 2000 to 4000 Rs. per month. The village community is depending on agricultural and forest products. Village people do not have legal land and thus, they are encroached the forestland for agriculture, which is called ‘Jabaran-jot Jamin’. Sources of employments are very limited. They not possess the skills, which required for other labour work. All the family members are engaged themselves in agricultural. Family members, including sons, daughters and daughter-in-laws are the sources of human labour. Lack of public transport is the salient feature of these villages. Children need to walk every day for going to school after 4 th standards. Mendha (Lekha) village is 1km away from main road. But Udegoan is 3 km away from main road and it has a kaccha link-road up to Chatgaon from a side and 6 km away from main road which reach at Girola by semi-kaccha road on other side. Vehicles like bicycle, two-wheeler bike have only by few households (may be three or four families in village).

Educational status of Parents: In these households, educational status of respondents and their family members are very low. In both the Gond Tribal villages, rate of school dropout, illiteracy and not-interest in formal education is very high. Alternative skill based non-formal education centers are not available nearby these villages. In addition, lack of awareness about importance of education or knowledge is increased the severity of the issue of education.

Children Attitude towards schooling: Children like to go to school but do not like to study in home after coming back. Students are complaining about school infrastructure, food, teaching methods and language as well as syllabus.Some students do not want to leave school education, but their families are pressurized to them for agricultural work, forest work for economical support to family directly or indirectly.They are satisfied and happy with agricultural, household, forest and labour work in the village. Many students do not like to live in Ashram-schools due to filthy conditions of these schools. Only those students are studying in ashram school as they not found good alternative due to their poor economical condition. Insecurity and filthy conditions are compelled them to avoid the schooling of girls children.

Purpose of education: Importance of education is mostly limited up to reading – writing and understands the documents of land, forest and related employment cards. They know that formal education will help to get job and accommodate their children in cities or towns, as well as help them in agricultural work. Community believes that only that education is important which help to their livelihood. Means, their perspective is employability oriented, as they believe that without money or production they cannot survival.

Medium of education: As Marathi and English are official languages and are important for getting legal documents about their land and forest rights, thus they want to study. Without understanding Marathi or English, at least Marathi, survive in this society is not possible. This requirement fetches them toward schools.

Awareness: Tribals are does not know about the facilities, which are provided by state for their primary as well as higher education.Lack of information about their legal or constitutional rights and facilities, these people do not raise any question about their exploitation or non-facilitation in schools. They think that education is non-affordable issue and that’s why they feel that agricultural work, labour in forest or selling of forest products is better than education for their children. Thus, they avoid higher education.

Cultural and Education: Habit of alcoholism and premarital sexual relationship creates hurdle within the schooling and thus, it is a major factor, which is responsible to discontinuity of schooling among tribal children.Culturally – girls are treated as ‘little mother’ or ‘little wife’ whereas boys are treated as ‘little husband’ or ‘little father’ and they get training of their future roles from their father or mother. It leads to absenteeism from school. Supporting to family’s work is first priority for the children. On the other hand, medium of education, syllabus or curriculum creates hurdle to understand the subjects due to incompetency in language or medium in which they are getting education. Distance between of school and village is another hurdle, mainly for girl’s school education that affects the continuity education. Parents lose their control over their children, which again lead to engagement into premarital sexual relations among school going children that raised school dropout. But the tribal community have very casual attitude towards such relations as it is the part of their culture as well as values of nature and gender equality. Children are not motivated for re-appearing the next exam after getting fail in 10 th class. Failure in 10 th standard meant that schooling is over for that particular child.

Role of the state: State does not play its role significantly as bureaucratic structure failed to handle the issue of tribal education with sensitivity. In one hand, government’s rules and regulation for teachers and staff lose their control over students and on other hand, it provide freedom, choice and quality education to students that is also assumptions by the state. However, for tribal education, it is not appropriate for tribal students because these laws creates hurdle in their education. Teachers do not care if any children not come in school, they do not take exam of children and thus quality of education and student sinking down day-by-day. This phenomenon creates alienation among teachers and they not motivate to tribal students for their education. The problem of implementation of tribal educational plan and distribution of provided facilities also hampered due to teacher’s alienation attitudes.

Conclusion

Formal education among tribals is a platform for social interfaces, where many actors with diverse values, interests, knowledge and power interact with one another. For instance, for the tribals, their interests are sustenance based livelihood and cultural continuity. On the other hand formal education impose the interest of connecting the community to an outer world regulated by different power structure, norms of corruption and the state jobs or market.

The community based value, Beliefs, Norms, Sanctions, Tradition, Knowledge, Technology, Livelihood, these are the cultural and institutional factors influence the tribal education. On the other hand, by the ruling structure of formal education, there have problems with implementation of formal education process by default of state intervention. These both the agency and structure creates the interfaces in formal education of Gond tribal children in Dhanora block.

The phenomenon of continuity and discontinuity, which emerges in Gond tribal community, that creates the social interfaces in formal education of their children that affected by various components like lack of access to resources, medium of interaction, transportations, curriculum and not based on the indigenous syllabus which help to children can get educated in primary stage. However, that does not create mechanism for inclusion of tribal children in formal education by the state. Due to only teacher-based monitoring, there is a problem with monitoring and that influence to discontinuities.

Social interfaces in tribal formal education can understand by cooperation and conflict, which emerges in the process of school going and school dropout by the children. Gond tribal community accepted the formal education, but some points they try to refuse and ask question against formal education by tribal community. However, they are going to change in terms of culturally, socially, economically and educationally also, whichshow that they cooperate with structure as well as restructure their community.

Role of the state intervention in the community influence the identity of the Gond tribal community in terms of language, rituals, habit’s, lifestyle, livelihoods, food etc. Because, in the community, due to formal education, people are also see them in the context of larger world. This can influence the identity of Gond tribal community. And it creates the social interfaces because in that process cooperation as well as internal and external conflict happens in the community.

In this present study, researcher went through the various processes. Even during the formulation of research concern, she valued her previous field-work based experience with tribals in Maharashtra. Her previous visits to the Non-Governmental Organization in Bhamragadh as well as Dhanora block which are working on the issue of tribal educational, health and other issues like land, forest etc. also contributed to additional area,Researcher decide to work on through the secondary data like articles, SSA Report, Reports of Government of Maharashtra and Ministry of tribal affair about tribal education in Vidharbha (Maharashtra). Afterward researcher came to know that Gadachiroli district and especially Dhanora, Bhamragadh, Sironcha, Allapali blocks, which are tribal dominated blocks, are very lagging behind in education as they have more drop-out rate as compare to other districts. Condition of formal education is very poor and critical. In this district as various reports shows that the school dropout rate is increases day-by-day after government spends lot of money, allocate more budgetary provisions for tribal development and for the educational development every year. This particular region is very much neglected. Especially many policies, programs and schemes are launching for them as per the provisions of Indian constitution, but still nobody knows where the money goes.

This journey of research started from the critical thinking of such aspects which provoked to take risk to go in Naxalite zone for this study. Researchers chose Dhanora block as a concern of the situation for possible to data collection where the evidences of naxalites encounters by CRPF are observed by researcher two times during data collection of this study. After the study of secondary data, researcher conducted her pilot study in the month of November of the year 2011 in five villages of Dhanora block with the help of contact person in ‘SEARCH’ organization, and then selected two villages for her case study as already mentioned earlier. On the basis on secondary data and pilot study, researcher developed the research questions related to theoretical framework and objective of the study to understand the respective phenomenon.

In this process researcher went to Mendha (Lekha) in month of May. That time in Gadachiroli district and especially in Dhanora block naxalite activities were on peak and in that situation data collection was not a secure process for both ends, to researcher as well as to participants as they were under the threat of naxalites. People warned the researcher not to stay at village more that 4-5 days. Researcher used two wheeler vehicles for approaching to villages as some villages do not have roads and absence of proper public transport system. No one villager was ready to give shelter, researcher conducts the whole process from headquarter Gadchiroli from where she moved to villages in morning and returned in evening. The researcher collected data from one village and came again for collecting remain data in month of November 2012. This time, naxal activities were less and it helped the researcher complete the primary data collection. In the process, researcher faced many difficulties like approaching to people as it was the peak farming season and not able to stay more days in villages due to winter season. Villagers are talked on various aspects of issues. However, many times, language becomes the hurdle to understand it as they used Gondi-dominated Marathi, which was not so familiar to researcher. Mendha (Lekha) people were more conscious about why I was collecting data from their village or households and thus they were not cooperating properly. In the beginning It was very difficult to gather the villagers at one place for in-depth group discussions. After a call, very few numbers of people gave response to us. In this process researcher, interacted with village panchayat member and education department of Dhanora block, NGO contact persons, schoolteachers, children (boys and girls), women and men in the research area.

When researcher visited to Education Block Office in Dhanora, there was nobody in office for giving record of educational development of tribal in that block. Getting the data from this office become a huge struggle, and many time a meaningless effort when officers did not give any positive response after talking with them on cell phones. It was a very big task that travel every day from Gadchiroli to research destination area due to lack of staying facilities in villages and villagers are not ready to allow us due to threat of naxalites and CRPFs. In such conditions, researcher managed to stay two days at Gotul at Udegoan. Most of the women went to farm in daytime, researcher move to village at early morning to meet them and moved out at late at evening from that village. Overall experience was very good as villagers cooperate afterward when they knew that this study is concerned to their issues of development.

In this research process, researcher learned a lot. She becomes aware about ground realities of interior tribal area of Gadchiroli District as well as the life world of tribes and strategic tactics of social workers as well as leaders. Researcher is aware that if we dig the issue deeply, we will get the new questions and aspects/dimensions of tribal life/problems. Again, understanding regarding government’s interventions and the stat also was enhanced in this process.

References and Bibliography:

• Ambasht, N.K. (1970). A Critical sstudy of tribal education. S.Chand & CO publication, New Delhi.
• Bhalerao S.G. (2010). The teacher’s role in education and development of tribal children: case studies of elementary schools of Jawahar Tahsil, dist. Thane. Publication: TISS,Bombay-88
• Bagai &Nundy, (2009). Tribal education fine balance. Dasra Publication, Mumbai.
• Bhalerow, V.N. (2000). Dialects of Tribal, Society and Cultural, Publication: Aradhana Brothers; Kanpur.
• Deogaonkar, S.G.(2007). The Gonds of Vidarabha, Publication: Concept Publishing Company; New Delhi.
• Deshmukh,B.A. (2004). Tribal Education: Impact of E. Sonali Publication, New Delhi.
• Durdhawale A. and Vijaya, (2009). Primary Schooling in a tribal district of Maharashtra: Some policy relevance. Publication: TISS, Mumbai.
• Gautam V.(2006). Education of tribal Children in india and the issue of Medium of Instruction: A Janshala experience, government Janshala programme, Delhi.
• Kamble, N. (2007). The Formal Education & Adivasi Adolescent boy. Publication: TISS; Mumbai
• Kundu, M. (1994). Tribal Education: New Perspective. Gyan Publishing,New Delhi.
• Kailash (1993). Tribal Education &occupation: Dynamics of impact &changes.Manak Publications, New Delhi.
• Kharad, G.D. (2009). Tribal Education in India with Reference to Maharashtra. Journal No. 000000, Vol.33 (2),Sept, p.no. 12-20.
• Long. N. (2001). Development Sociology (actor perspectives). Routledge Publication; London and New York.
• MacDougall, J. (2008). Tribal Resistances. Publisher: Critical Quest; New Delhi.
• Mathur, N.N.G.(1994). Problems of Tribal Education; Shiva Publishers ,Udaipur.
• Ministry of Tribal Affairs, Annual report- 2008:25
• Maharashtra Government Report, Gadchiroli Districat;2009.
• Malhotra,O.P.(1998). Tribal Education: Impact of Education on Tribal Life and Adjustment. Cosmo Publication, New Delhi.
• Murkute, S.R. (1990). Socio-Cultural Study of Scheduled Tribes, Publication: Concept Company; New Delhi.
• Patel, S. (1991). Tribal education in India. Mittal Publication, New Delhi.
• Russell, V. R. & Hiralal R. B. (1975). The Tribes and Castes of the Central Provinces of India. Vol. No. IV; Publication: Cosmo, Delhi
• Singh, K.S. (1994). The Schedule Tribes. Vol. No. III, Publication: Oxford University Press; New Delhi.
• Sujata, K. (1999). Education Among Scheduled Tribes. ‘Indian Education Report’ CED code-B.N21.G1.
• Thusu, K.N. (1980). Gond Kingdom of Chanda, Publication: Anthropological Survey of India; Colkata.
• Turner, J. H. (2004). The structure of Sociological Theory, Rawat Publication; Jaipur.
• Tofa, D. & Hiralal M.H. ( 2010). Mendha(Lekha). Publication: Vrikshamitra; Chandrapur/ Gadchiroli.
• Thakur,D. (1997).Tribal Education. Deep &Deep Publications, New delhi.
• The National Policy on Education 1986- Programme of Action 1992 CED code – R N00.33.