Introduction

India is a land of multi-religion, multicultural and diverse social group of people’s. Its ethnic composition is complex than any other nation in the world. Each social group have their own distinct identity that makes them different from the other social groups this identity is acquired by a common origin, geographical location or by a common practice, such as a group of people or a community following a particular ritual or a custom that is different from other social group, that makes them a distinct community or group e.g. people who belong in Hindu religion are called Hindus or people living in forest areas are called tribes. This identity is constructed by the individual world view. Its ethnic composition is complex and makes is distinct from other nation. India has the second largest tribal population in the world, the first being Africa. Tribal Communities are the integral segment of Indian society.

India is the land of 645 distinct tribal groups. This tribal groups are situated from the north to the south and from the east to the west of this nation. Each tribal group has its own distinct identity and distinct culture that is achieved through a common ancestor or by common origin. The tribe’s groups dwellers from plains to hills and from desert to dense forest away from the mainland civilization making them socially and culturally exclude and diverse from the other social groups. The tribal people have rich traditions, cultures, and heritage with unique lifestyles and customs. The areas inhabited by this ethnic groups constitute a significant part of the underdeveloped areas of the country.

1.1 The Construction of concept of Tribe

Tribal are known to be the autochthonous (Inhabitant of the land) people of the land. In other words, they are termed as ‘Adivasi’, ‘Adimjati’, ‘Pahari’ etc. The word Adivasi is made up of two words combining ‘Adi’ means earlier or original and ‘Vasi’ means inhabitants; therefore, it means the earlier or original inhabitants of this nation. The Adivasi or Tribes are one of the abstract categories of population. They have their own distinct culture, and identity with is different from the civilized world. They are considering and universally backward, and primitive. (Sathaye & Ghavdy, 2002) Many attempts are made to define these groups. The British called them savages, forest dwellers or tribes. The term tribe in Roman context is used to refer to the state of barbarism, but also indicate a creek relationship between a social group and the imperial state, with whom they usually exchanged the gifts and tributes, therefore, tribes refers to a particular relationship between the centre and the periphery.” (Xaxa, 2014). In ancient India, the tribes were known as the ‘Jana’ rather than ‘Jati’ because the tribes were considered to be outside of the caste hierarchy. However, the category of Jana and Jati was not universally accept. The ethnographer and anthropologist pointed that Jana and Jati deftly does not intersection with each other among the both tribes and caste respectively. The anthropologist view the tribes as a whole society having, more or less homogenous with common government, language, culture, customs, etc. (Honigmann, 1966), definition of tribes are distinguished by the absence of state-like features in their social organization which is marked by the segmental feature (Sahlins, 1961). Godelier (1977) views tribes as stages in the evolution of society. In a systematic view, tribes can be defined as cultural distinctiveness, strong and functional kinship bonds, relative egalitarianism with the social group, an absence of complex political structure, lower level of technology. Further, they had also defined them as the primitive group that shows features of lack of modern trains, uncivilized, non-industrial and so on. Another important person in Tribal studies is Jagannath Pathy. Pathy initially referred to tribes as an ethnic minority in his 1988 book Ethnic Minorities in the Process of Development, this created a furore, and later conceived ‘tribes’ as an identity located within political economy. For Pathy, tribes were subjects of history with their own political space and cognitive specificity. He defined them as historically evolved societies, biologically self-perpetuating with common cultural features, subordinated in several ways to dominant society and for long, engaged in struggles to preserve and promote their distinguishable features as well as territorial survival resources. (Bodhi, 2013)

The Census of India had also seen to play a very significant role in shaping the modern understanding of tribe through its efforts at record and classification. One can find the proper explanation of tribes began during the colonial census of the late 19th century to provide detailed information about the population and of the sub-continent. Through this activity, certain communities were labelled as tribes, although the conditions and the standard of measuring the tribes were transformed over time. In 1881, the census used the term ‘forest tribes’, to define a sub-category within the broader group of ‘agricultural and pastoral castes’ (Xaxa, 2014). Followed by in the 1901 census, the groups that ‘practice animism’ were identified as Tribes; thus, we can see that religious practices were the centre in this census. Therefore it was seem that, those who believed or practice Hinduism were seen as castes, while those groups who practice animism was called as tribes, although this standard was changed in the following decades such that is, at present, they were teams as Scheduled Tribes, these schedule tribes was said to be, that they can practice any religion, including that of Hinduism and Christianity. In later surveys, additional references to territory were comprised, producing the label of ‘hill and forest tribes’ in 1921. They were termed as ‘primitive tribes’ a decade later. The new descriptions placed more prominence on the isolation of tribes within hill and forest areas as well as their ‘primitive’ way of life. “One of the earliest attempts to create a list of tribes in the sub-continent was during the 1931 census which identified ‘primitive tribes’. This was followed by a list of “backward tribes” for the provinces made under the Government of India Act, 1935” (Xaxa, 2014). In the 1941 census, religion was set as a criterion which was taken into the consideration, and also the origin to define tribes’, that is, tribes were those who have a ‘tribal origin’. Consequent ethnographers have challenged these conceptualizations, arguing that tribes have continuously been in interaction with other social groups. Other scholars have argued that the conception of the tribe as isolated was based on their nascent marginalization through injustice forest policies, reconciliation and forced nomadic population during British colonial rule. (Xaxa, 2014)

The voices of the people coming from tribal communities such as those of Jaipal Singh and Nichols Roy who used the term Adi Vasi, and even Dr. B. R. Ambedkar who used the term ‘aborigines’ were lost in the din of such heavily loaded conceptions. During the 1950s, we had at one end the Nehruvian conception as articulated in his Panchsheel for Tribal development – celebrating the concept of ‘own genius’, ‘rights to land and forest’, ‘endogenous development with minimal outside interference’, ‘no over-administration and development in consonance with tribal social and cultural institutions’, and ‘stress on human character rather than statistical results’. (Bodhi, 2013) All of these conceptions held sway till the writings of Virginius Xaxa emerged. In the post Xaxa phase within tribal studies, by ‘tribe’ we mean not only a socio cultural entity existing in time and space but a culturo political entity perceived vertically, and a politico historical entity located horizontally in time and space. As much as tribe is a socio cultural entity, it is also a political unit, a nation, in and by itself. It is neither a caste, nor a peasant group and neither is it a stratified grouping which in due course of time will lose its sense of nationhood in the sea of greater traditions. However, for the Indian state, ‘tribe’ still remains only a politico administrative category (Bodhi, 2013). In the post- colonial period, prominent anthropologists have inclined to view the ‘tribe’ as a colonial construction. An anthropologist has defined the tribal communities by keeping in mind the working definition of tribes, which have often been specific to their site of study that is stated tribes defer considerably in terms of their population size, the level of integration within the capitalist economy and mode of livelihood. There is huge variation, for example, in the range of occupations practiced among tribes. They may be: hunters and gatherers, shifting cultivators, settled agriculturalists, pastoralists, artisans, farm labourers, and plantation and industrial workers. (Xaxa, 2014)

The 1950 Constitutional Amendment order with the full list of Scheduled Tribes, recognized at the time was largely based on the list of “backward tribes” prepared by the colonial administration in 1936. At the time of the first census of independent India in 1951, there were 212 recognized Scheduled Tribes in the country. The term Scheduled Tribe itself is a politico-administrative category that does not capture the enormous social complexity of the various tribes encompassed within its fold. The Constitution of India categorized certain sections of the population as Scheduled Tribes to make available special welfare provisions to them even though this category was never properly defined. In a circular fashion, tribes are defined as those groups enumerated as tribes under the Indian Constitution. (Xaxa, 2014)

As per the Indian Constitution Act, 366(25) of Indian Constitution “Schedule Tribes means such tribes or tribal communities or a part of or groups within such tribes or tribal communities as are deemed under Article 342 to be scheduled tribes for the purposes of this constitution.” (CO1, 2016)

1.2 Tribal Population living in India

The tribal communities in India live in various ecological and diverse conditions ranging from plains and forests to hills and inaccessible areas. Tribal groups are at the different stages of social, economic and educational development, while some tribal communities have adopted mainstream ways of life and some are still in the phase of mainstreaming.

The Tribal population of the country is 10.43crore that is 8.6% of total population of the nation as per 2011 census data, among this 8.6%, 89.97% tribal population resides in a rural part of India where else 10.03% population stay in urban parts. (GO1, 2011) from above census data on can easily identify that India is the home of nearly one hundred tribal population with their distinct origin and customs. In India, most of the tribal areas are north-eastern region states, Central and southern region of India. Tribes of central and southern region of India mostly found in interaction with the non-tribal groups, where else the north-eastern tribes are more of the isolated from the mainland India these tribes mostly live in their own way

1.3 The Tribes in Maharashtra

It is said and believed that the words Marathi and Maharashtra originated from ‘Maharathi’,

Meaning the great charioteer. Maharathi denoted a strong “fighting force” in the ancient Maratha history (GOM, 2017). Maharashtra is considered the cornerstone of social reform. It is this state that gifted the nation with the concept and value of ‘Swaraj’ and ‘Social Justice’. Maharashtra is the land of diversity, wherein we find people living in diverse geographical locations that range from mountains to hills and from Plateaus to planes. Maharashtra is also known for the diverse ecological habitat with a large number of biodiversity flourishing in at its whole extent. It is the home of 47 tribal group that are situated from the length to the breadth of its geographical boundaries. Each tribal group living in this geographical location has its own ethnicity, religion, norms and customs making them different from the other tribal group. Among these 47-tribal group, 3 are the most Primitive group that comes under the category of PVTGs this is Gond, Kolam, and katakri. Gonds are mostly found in the north-eastern part of Maharashtra that is in Chandrapur and Gadchiroli areas, where else katkari are located in the western part of Maharashtra and kolam are in the Yavatmal region of the state.

As per 2011 census the total population of Tribes in Maharashtra is 1.05 lac that is 9.4 per cent of the total Maharashtra population. This population is predominantly found in Nashik, Chandrapur, Gadchiroli, Yavatmal, Raigad, and Pune.

1.4 Tribes in Raigad

Raigad lies in the western coastal part of Indian content in the state of Maharashtra. It is the part of Konkan region of Maharashtra having around 15 talukas. It was anciently known as “Kolaba” but later is was change into the Raigad because of the Shivaji Maharaj Fort “Raigad”. Due to its location on the western part of the nation among the Sahyadri ranges, it is blessed with a very stunning biodiversity, one can find many varieties flora and fauna flourishing in its area. Raigad is the habitat of tribe’s groups such Takar, Mahadev koli, Dongar Koli, Katkari, Thakur and Varli. This community is in continuous interaction with each other, Takar and Dongar koli usually reside on the hilly areas where else the katkari resides in plain areas near the villagers. The total area of the district is 7,152 Sq. km. The population is mostly tribes and Marathi with the small proposition of minority groups.

The literacy rate among the total population is 83.14 per cent as per the 2011 census as compared to 77.03 percent in 2001. One can see a clear increase in the literacy rate in past 10 years interestingly there is 11 per cent increased in female literacy rate compare to 2001 census

1.5 Migration an Ancient phenomenon

Migration is as old has the human civilization. It is one the significant reason that leads to the establishment of civilizations across the world. Since from Greece to Indus valley and from Mesopotamia to Egyptian migration was the reason for their establishment, history have witnessed that migration have made many civilizations flourished, it was because of migration America, Australia, Africa was discovered. Thus, one can say that migration leads to change at individual and community level. Therefore, through is we can define migration as a movement of a species from one region to another with an intention of setting temporary or intentionally.

Oxford dictionary defines migration as “Movement of people to a new area or country in order to find work or better living conditions.” Similarly, Webster defines migration as “to move from one country, place, or locality to another.” Both the definition states that it’s a movement from one geographical location to another for temporary or may be permanent period. Just as migration had led to the establishment of the civilization it has also lead to the end of civilization, because once migrate she/he lives behind everything they had made and move in search of new location e.g. Homo eratos kept on moving from its original position to the new place in search of better living opportunity. Thus, migration is mostly done seeking for better living opportunities. The reason of migration is very relevant even today. People today migrate because of 3 major reasons or in other words push and pull factors. That are political, economic and environmental. Political migration is due to conflicting situation, refugees, etc. Economic migration is mainly because of lower level of earning of or in search of better lives, and last is environment migration this migration mostly occurs due to the environmental factors such as floods, drought, earthquake etc. All this can be pulled or push factors depends upon the situation. Migration can be of two types interstate and intrastate. Interstate migration is the migration that happens between two states, nations for e.g. Indians migrating to America or men from Karnataka or Gujarat migrate to Mumbai where else intrastate migration is migration within the same state for e.g. farmer migrate from Beed to Mumbai or Pune or Nashik in search of livelihood.

1.6 Types and pattern of migration among the tribes of Maharashtra

In a context of Tribes. Migration is the common phenomenon among the few tribal groups in Maharashtra, such as DNT community or katkari community migrate from one place to another. The migration mostly be seasonal in nature, especially in the case of katkari they migrate after the harvest season that is, after the month of November. They are mostly involved in both interstate and intrastate migration the katkari mostly migrated to Karnataka, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, and Madhya Pradesh. This tribe are mostly engaged in coal mining, bamboo cutting, brick kilns and sugar farms. During the period of migration to coal mines, brick kilns they usually carry all their belongs such as utensil, bamboos to make hut so that they can stay, clothes, etc. In a case of nomadic tribes they are considered to be a migrating or shifting community. This group does not settle at a particular location for a longer period of time. Migration has become a significant part of their leaving. Due to this, it becomes very difficult to trace this population and because of that they are unable to get any service or schemes from the government.

1.7 The Impact of Migration on Tribal life

Migration creates a severe impact on tribal lives. Its moves from their homeland to a completely new location, there is the loss of education for children because in many cases the migrant families carry their children along with them forcing them, this then hamper the education of child and force him in entering the labour force as child labour beside that loss of health care is another issue., making the tribal group more vulnerable for exploitation especially the women’s and children, long hours of work, mentally distressed, starvation, health issues etc. Migration makes their lives more vulnerable to exploit. In the case of Brick kiln and coal mine, the life of the migrating tribes is at the mercy of the owner of the brick kiln and coal mines. There are cases wherein the women are being molested rated and rape during their work on fields

The child in the picture was working in the brick kiln factory in Roha raigad. The family of this child belongs to a tribal community from Karnataka. He was brought on the brick kiln by his parents for two reasons one that no one was there to look after him at his home place and another was that he will help is family members in making the brick. When the researcher ask them how much do they earn a day? The father of this child said they get 100 rupees for per 100 bricks but if the bricks has defaults then 5 rupees are cut from there total amount

2. Concepts and Frames

In previous chapters, we have seen the historical origin of tribes in the context of India we have also considered the various tribal groups living in their ego-climatic condition and we also looking in to the context of the study with the special references to migration. In this chapter the researcher have discussed the available literate and identified the gaps between them specifically focusing on Katkari community, the chapter has explained the historical background of the katkari tribes and changing trends among them. At the ending, the chapter has identified the gaps in existing literature.

2.1 Concept of Tribes and Primitive Tribes

Since from many ages the term ‘Tribe’ was often used in a derogatory manner mainly referring them to being ‘primitive’ or ‘savage’ based on their socio-cultural status, they were being considered as ‘underdeveloped’. However, studies prove that the two terms are not euphemism or interlink and it cannot be referred as one to describe each and other. The term Primitive was early used to describe ‘aboriginal’, ‘Indigenous’ and in common language natives or the uncivilized population. The definition of primitive is very much dissimilar to the word tribe. However, this words tribe are frequently used to define primitive tribes. The anthropological dictionary is defined ‘Tribe’ as, “A social group, usually habitat in with a fixed geographical location, have a common dialect, common ethnicity, and district social organization. A tribal group ordinarily has ahead of the group and also have a common ancestor. The population is less in numbers and constitute a homogenous community” (Winick).

The above definition highlights the certain feature about tribes that is

• Habitation is specific to definite area,

• The practice of homogeneity that is a common language, culture, and customs.

• The population is in small in numbers and one can see the features of close community

In words of the anthropologist and of social scientists or in the language of the common people the concept of tribes, primitive tribes, tribal society, and communities have been use unknowing or used in a different way to assimilate the entire tribal population with peasants population. Yet the content and the realm of these concepts and they’re imperialistic as methods of classification and comparison are not clear. It is seen that no cross-culturally valid definitions of these frequently applied terms exist. So, according to necessities and circumstances, one can used them as classificatory source, as stages in a socio-cultural scheme of evolution, as synonyms for uniformity, traditionalism, rigidity, and backwardness, as manifestations of geographically, institutionally, ideologically narrowly constrained systems characterized by values that are bound to time and place (Biebuyck, 1996)

In many anthropological and ethnographic works, the concept of tribe and its sources occur without any definition of their accurate meaning in context but some authors have adopted a sceptical view to use this terms. In this view, the authors and the anthropologists tries to use substitute, or replace the word with something else in this way they avoid the issue rather than solving it

2.2 Historical background of Katkari Tribes

Katkari/Kathodi Tribes is one of the most backward tribes’ groups. These tribal groups are mainly concentrated in Nashik, Pune, and Thane and predominant population are found in Raigad (Kulaba) district of Maharashtra. Besides that, few katkari communities are found in Gujarat and Rajasthan. The katkari was given the status of Primitive on the basis of its socio-cultural and economic backwardness by the ministry of welfare (Mahto. K.R. lakra.N). The record of the katkari tribes was first written in the year 1894 by W. M. Hearn in the statistical report of the Kolaba district. In Maharashtra 3 tribal groups are given the status primitive, that is a tribal group who is more vulnerable than another tribal group. The three tribal groups namely; Kolam, Katkari and Maria Gond. Later these 3 communities were shifted into the category of Particularly Vulnerable Tribal Group i.e. (PVTGs) by the government of India in the year 2006 giving them a protective status. According to the latest census, Maharashtra is the home of 235,022 katkari tribes (GOI, 2012). The katkari comes under the Scheduled Tribes category as particularly vulnerable tribal groups (PVTGs). In Gujarat, they are called kathodi and in Maharashtra katkari.

2.3 The Origin of the Word Katkari/kathodi

The word katkari is derived from the word Kath or khair (Catechu). It is the product which is made from the juice of khair tree and thus these people were engaged in this activities/occupation they were called katkari meaning the Catechu makers. According to Enthoven (1922). “The Kathodi’s or Katkari’s are a tribe of catechu makers”. Stephen Fuchs regards the ‘Kathodi’ as a subsection of Bhils. They are also known as Katkari and Kathodia. Mr. Rajwade pointed out that the katkari are the inhabitant of Sahyadri Mountains from past 5000-6000 years (Sathaye & Ghavdy, 2002). Katkaris are mainly found in Pen, Khalapur, Karjat, Panvel, Roha, Mangaon, Alibag and Mahad district of Raigad. It is said that they have migrated to Gujrat and Rajasthan from the Sahyadri region or more precisely from the present-day Raigad, and Thane and Khandesh regions. According to Masvi and Pandya (1981) “they were brought into Gujarat by some Bohra contractors and traders to make catechu from Khair trees. It is said that initially only katkari men’s use to migrate for the period of eight months that from October to May, but gradually the contractor coaxed the Katkari to migrate along with their families. Therefore, migration has become an inconvenient part of their living.” An authentic volume on the katkaris and by far the first time “The Katkaris a sociological study of aboriginal tribes of the Bombay Presidency was written by Mr. A.N. Weling in the year 1934. According to him “Katkari as a landless person with no fixed sedentary profession. He is basically a hunter and coal maker. He gathers and sells forest produce. He is an agricultural worker as the field laborer and fresh water fisherman. The katkaris has extensive acquaintances with the plant life – be it timber and fuel trees, fruits, flower, vegetables and pulses yielding plants of the plains. He is intimate with wild herbs and tubers useful in the times of scarcity and famine. He can pick up medicinal plants and herbs to cure his maladies and heal his wounds. He knows plants for poisoning fish and the vegetable antidotes against snakes’ bites. He lives in a country infested with serpents and reptiles such as snake, python, etc. Trees are sacred to him or associate with medico-religious properties.” (TRTI, 1979)

In the Bombay Gazetteer (Thane Vol. XIII) the katkaris are described as the poorest and least hopeful, a drunken let given to thieving. They are unwilling to work excepts when forced by hunger. They are degraded lot and earn scantly living by tilling forest-glands and hunting. (TRTI, 1979)

The katkari tribes are small in population. The Katkari are said to be the descendants from the ‘monkey’s’ or ‘Vanar’ usually called the monkey god. These monkeys were taken by Rama with him in his expedition against the King of Lanka Nagari the Ravana. They say that when Rama gain victorious over the Ravana, he blessed the monkeys and made them Human beings. From the traditional legends, the Katkari appearance, customs, and religions show that they are an aboriginal tribe much influenced by Hinduism. (Sathaye & Ghavdy, 2002).

2.4 Biological sketch of Katkari tribes

The appearances of the katkari individual quite different` from other they are dark-brown in color, they have medium to tall stature, stout looking and slim. Fuchs (1973) writes that “they are slight in build and of medium height”. In appearance, they are strong, tough and fit it is all because of the labour work and geographical area that makes them adopt themselves. Their walking style is also different they usually walk by seeing down like in form of little banding. “Per the Bombay Gazetteer; (1901) the Katkari/Kathodis are small, hard-featured and black. The men shave the head and grow a slight straggling beard. The women dress their hair after oiling it and braiding it in a long fillet.” Katkari women are usually thin and they mostly don’t comb their hair. They height is mainly medium and they usually work with their husbands. It had ones see that the katkari tribes are careless in nature and do not think of future. This phenomenon has change over the period of time as now we can see that in spite of their migrational status few of the katkari tribes have their bank accounts and have started saving money. Their Dialect contains few words common among the Bhils and their customs also indicate a Bhil origin, to some extent. Their language belongs to the Kolerian group while speaking to one another they use a Katois, which on examination proves to be a slightly vernacular Marathi (Sathaye & Ghavdy, 2002).” The katkari language belongs to the Kolerian group, while speaking to one another they use a kateis, which on examination proves to be a slightly disguised Marathi. It sounds something like Koni-Marathi. Unlike other tribe’s groups, the katkaris do not have any peculiar language and show no sign of over having had one. Their tendency is to get rid of personal infections in verbs not in tones for e.g. they called Dog- Suna, Hiru- Snake, Narak- Bear, and Anti- Fire” (TRTI, 1979).

The Katkari are mostly non-vegetarian in food habits. They used to depend much on the hunting wild animals, wild fruits, vegetables, roots, and tubers. The practice of hunting among this tribes is reduced to a lot extent it all just because of wildlife protection act. That prohibits this tribal groups to hunt. Their stable diet consists of Bulbous, Nachni (Ragi), Vari, Mouse, Peacock, Rabbit, Monkey, Fish, Rice, rice is considered one of the basic stable diet of this group etc. According to Mr. Weling “His traditional method of tillage has been described as forest cleaning system (Dhali) land a system under which anyone could clan space in the forest by paying 50 paise, out and burns the trees and bushes and raise crops of nachni (TRTI, 1979)

Masvi and Pandya (1980) “have mentioned that fruits such as bor and guller, wild roots such as kadva kanda (wild onion), wildflowers and even grains of wild grass such as save are eaten by them from summer to the close of monsoon”. Usually, Katkaris are the addict to Alcoholism. As the domestic animals, they mostly have goats, chickens and a less no of cows or buffalo. In Katkari tribes the name of the child or individual mostly depends on Tree, Animals, and Gods of Hindu Religion. The community of katkais is called ‘Katwadi’. Their houses are made up of Red-Bricks and wet red soil in place of cement, and they use cow-dung on the floor, they don’t have gas in their house they cook their food on ‘cul’ that is a stow made up of mud and use firewood to cook the food. They have a limited number of utensils in their home. Their houses are mostly of normal size. They mostly follow a nuclear pattern of the family structure where after marriage the husband and wife live separately in the same village.

2.5 Social stratification among the katkari tribes

In Katkari Tribes there are two Sub-Tribes, mainly Son Katkari and Dhor Katkari. These two subtribes are said to be against each other, they usually avoid marrying within their sub-tribes. The Son Katkari considers them-self superior to the Dhor Katkari. The word Son means gold or superior. They do not practice the activities of taking carrion, therefore, these tribes consider them-self superior to Dhor. They mainly found in Ratnagiri and Raigad District of Maharashtra, where else it is said that Dhor Katkari feed (eat) themselves on the flesh of dead animals and take carrion, therefore, they are considered inferiors to others thus in this one can observe the influences of Hindu Caste system of this groups. They were once considered untouchable in Thane district. They are usually found in thane and Nashik District. This tribal group has exogamous division among its self, such as Pawar, Wagmare, Waghne, Missal, kukne, lukhan etc.

2.6 The Contradiction between Matriarchy and Patriarchy

The Katkari tribes are mostly monogamous, but over the period of time due to the influences and assimilation process of saskritization, the patriarchy has started overtaking the monogamous status of this tribes. In some cases, one can also see the practice of polygamous marriages. Child marriage is still an issue face by this community Age at marriage for the girls is between 13 to 16 years while for the boys it is 15 to 29 years. The practice of arranged marriage is a common phenomenon, but the marriage is arranged by mutual consent the clans factor are taken into the consideration usually the marriage is done in endogamy way, but over the period of time and in gradual growth in literacy rate among the katkari tribes. There are cases of clan’s marriage or inter tribes’ marriages. In some cases, it is has seen that the boy and the girl cohabit as husband and wife, without formal marriage. Women’s are given more importance in their culture and hence the choice of the women are given more preference in spite of arrange marriage. One interesting thing that can be seen in this tribes is the practice of bride price. The practice of bride price is very old among this tribal group. An amount of bride prices is decided by the family of the bride and it can be in cash or in any other form. The process of divorce is done by the panch (Council of elders) and both wife and husband can file divorce on the ground of adultery or mal-adjustment. The practice of widow marriage is permitted among this tribes. There are cases where the widow is allowed to mirage to the younger brother of her husband. This type of practice can also be seen among the thakar tribes of Maharashtra. The practice of cross-cousin marriage can also be Identify. The katkari tribes were mostly nature worshipper. “Very family was having their own family gods such as Hindya, Shivarya Bordat or Boundary god, Waghya or with Dev (Tiger God) whom they offer sacrifices of chicken and goats on holy festivals” (TRTI, 1979). This practice is reduced over the period of years.

2.7 Importance’s of Land, Agricultural, and the Migration Pattern among the katkaris

The majority of Katkari tribes are dependent on agriculture, as an important source of survival and it’s mostly practice seasonal farming. That is it the farming only for a particular period of time or during a specific season. Whatever is produce from the field are for self-cultivation purpose. Katkari tribes are the marginal land holders only few of the katkari have land but that is very less therefore land ownership is a major problem for Katkari tribes. Because their land usually lies in the forest area or on the developmental zone, due to which they always have to face some or the other kind of exploitation from the government authority. Many of the katkari’s does not have ownership of land and thus they become landless and because of this problem they are more vulnerable to exploitation from the elites or upper caste groups in many ways may be direct or indirect. “This tribe work as laborers on the land of non-tribal contractors in the forest and on the road construction works, their women folks gather firework and other forest produce and sell in the villages. The lead a sub-human existence. They are by far the poorest amongst the scheduled tribes of Maharashtra.” (TRTI, 1979). The practice of shifting cultivation was done in the past but has abundant over the period of years. Thus, now agriculture is done on a particular land and has become primary occupation majority of the katkaris. After seasonal farming they are left with no work in their hand and then thus as to earn a source of living they migrate to Brick ken’s, Sugarcane farms, coal lens, or any other informal activity which is far from their hometown, due to which the education of children, the health issues, non-access to basic amenities arise as the owner of this farms and factories does not provide then decent infrastructure to work and even long hours of work with lot of physicals energy and less nutrition supply which has an adverse effect on the health of women and children. The katkaris hamlet is separate from the main village. There are made up of grass huts and mostly decrepit.

2.8 The Habitat of Katkari Tribes

The katkari tribes largely inhabit the mountainous areas of the Konkan regions. As mention in above paragraphs for katkaris forest is associate as madico-religious, therefore, the katkari like to live in the areas such as dense forest and mountains regions (TRTI, 1979)

2.9 Literature Gap

The study of katkari is being the centre of study for many ethnographer and anthropologist. The monographic survey was one of the kind has had act as the based for many researches. Activist, ethnographer, and anthropologist have written a lot on the tribal community but only a few of them are in the global (English) literature. Beside that many katkari literate is available in regional language due to which it becomes inaccessible from many academicians and scholars. Therefore, this research is a contribution towards the katkari literate in English language and another reason is that there is no study has been done on katkari tribes of is village there is the first and foremost study done on katkaris of sai village.

3. Methodology

This chapter outline the research methodology and how the study has been conducted by the defending the original position. This chapter will also examine the objectives of the study and the research question. The case study as a qualitative approach is comprehensively detailed and the reason is put forward to justify the same. The chapter also includes the research design and the methods of data collection on and off the field work. The stage of data collection has also being explained in the chapter with a subsequently the steps utilized to analyzed the data that is already collected from the field. The chapter also put forward the ethical consideration that the researcher has experiences and the limitations of the study

3.1 Conceptual framework

The researcher decided that the research will be conducted in Sai village to understand the socio-economic and political status of the katkari tribes. That disabled migrate from their hometown to other location. In socio-economic aspect of the katkari tribes that includes their social status in village, demographic profile, education status, Housing conduction, Health status, ownership over property etc. In economic status, the research studied the livelihood opportunities exist in the village, Income generating activities etc.

In Participation in local self-governance, the researcher studied the level of participation of katkari community/tribes in decision-making and the level of representation in the panchayat Samiti.

In cultural aspect, the research aimed at studying the various cultural factor that has help in disabling the migration of katkaris from sai village

Following are the objectives of the study

1. To understand the katkari village of Sai with special focus on their history of Migration to Settlers

2. To study the socio-economic aspect of katkari tribes in Sai village

3. To Study the various conditions behind the permanent Settlement of Katkari Tribes in Sai village

4. To study the impact of changing conduction of socio-economic, cultural and political on katkari in Sai village

3.2 Methodology

As the research is based on the issue of migration of katkari tribes. The research put forward the epistemological standpoint of people regarding the various reason of migration and permanent settlement. The research use purely qualitative method to identify the various factors that disable the migration of katkari’s in Sai village and becoming the permanent settlers. The lived experiences of the people become the source of knowledge production and engages in understanding the realities of migration of katkari community

3.3 The Population of Sai

As per the gram panchayat record the village have a total population of 3,037

Source: Gram Panchayat Record, (2011)

The Total house hold is village is 655 out of which 330 house hold belongs to katkari tribes. The total population of katkari in sai vallage is

Source: Gram Panchayat Record, (2011)

3.4 The Village Stratification

There are around 3 types population reside in Sai village namely the Marathas, Agri, and Katkari. The main village is consisting of Maratha and Agri where else katkari lies on the edges of the village. The total population of the tribal community is around 1,370 where else the other population has around 1,667 that constitute both the Maratha and the Agri. The Maratha is less in numbers but has a powerful influence on the governances system of the village. The political party that exists in this village is PWPI, NCP, INC, BJP and Shiv Sena. The main power holder among this political parties is NCP and BJP. In the last election, the BJP has got the major voting the village thus the sarpanch is from the BJP. The gram panchayat has 1 katkari representative who is the deputy sarpanch of the village. Other than that, the village council has upper caste dominances. Caste factor in this village can be covertly seen. The caste operates here in a informal way that is by denial and unequal distribution of the resources. Like any other villages, one can see the dominances groups takes way all the resources for their particular group. Thus, on can see both political and caste operations in this village.

Case Study no 1. From a wage earner to the deputy sarpanch of the village…

Janardan Gangaram Waghmare, a 65-year-old is the deputy sarpanch of Sai village. Born and brought up in Sai, Mr. Janardan was a farm labour, who use to cultivate the land of upper caste people. He and his previous generation have been excusing the same work from many years. Mr. Janardan gets 400 to 500 per month from the land cultivation. He has no land of his own but cultivates the land of upper caste men. He is quite known for his hard work and dedication and then made him represent his community in village council that is the gram panchayat. In spite of being illiterate, he is very much aware of the needs and wellbeing of his community. “A man of his work” that what they (villages) call him if the researcher asks about him. The story of him was not so good coz just like other katkari he also faces a lot of discrimination and injustice but he never looks down. He raised all the time by showing his agency towards the work. The reason for making Mr, Janardan deputy sarpanch was a political motive with a good cause. It was being noticed that there was no representation of katkari in village panchayat in spite of residing in a village for more than a decade. Therefore, due to no representation in the village council it becomes difficult to the katkaris to understand what the decisions are taken by the majority of the village and village council for the welfare of the katkari tribes. Therefore, it was important to understand the politics and dynamic within the village council and hence he was appointed. After appointing him as the deputy sarpanch the katkari hamlet has started getting schemes and services with they were entitled to. People say “first we was not having light neither water but as our member is there in the council we have started getting our entitlements. First the upper caste people use to divert our schemes and services there were no Anganwadi in our village but now we got it. There is a lot of politics among this person (the village people) and they don’t allow use get access to any services there is a lot of political holding but now we are getting the things done.” Mr, Jannardan has seen a helpful person in the village. He has also provided jobs to many katkaris from his village that has disabled the migration in the village

3.5 Literacy rate among the katkari tribes

The literacy rate is moderate among this group and gradually increasing over the period of time. The current literacy rate is around 5.6 percent. It is because of the other factors such as availability of such as schools, colleges and anganwadis in the village and in nearby location, the availability of transportation facilities are adding a plus point to the tribal community. Girls and boys are motivated to educate. The rate of education is seen equally increasing among both the gender thus one can see the educational development of both genders is increasing

Case Study No. 2 A Role Model for his ‘People’

Krishna Pawar, a 45 years old School clerk is a katkari by birth and a residence of Sai village. His family mainly consist of his wife, son, he himself and his mother and father. Krishna bhau faces a lot of hardship to get the education. His parents were a farm labour, who use to work on the land of the landlord. They were paid very low and was struggling to raise the children. Krishna bhau was having 3 brothers and sister. The parents raised them in a very weaker economic condition. Krishna bhau was very much fond of education since his child age he showed good interest in education, therefore this parent never forced him to work with them. They allow him to study. Krishna took that opportunity and completed his SSC by studying in the light of the ground oil Latin. While completing his studies, he was also use helping his parents by looking after his small brothers and sister. He was the first in the katkari hamlet to complete his SSC. When researcher asks him about his parent’s reaction of that he said: “they were surprise because for them the education was not known therefore what is SSC is the different thing.” After completing his SSC from Zilla Parishad School he took admission in college near pen where he daily uses to travel from Sai to Panvel to get education sometimes because of no money he uses to walk 15 km to reach college. But his determination never fade. He completed his graduation and become the first graduate among the katkari in Pen and Panvel taluka. He got a job in a school as a clerk and now he is completing his law. Krishna bhau has become an ideal to the katkari tribes. When the researcher asked him that now you are educated and you have a good job so way don’t you leave this village…? to which he replayed “I was born here and got educated through hard times. I have seen my community facing a lot of hardship and struggle. They migrate because there is no availability of livelihood. We are being labelled as the migration tribes but I want to break that stigma attach to my community and that I can only be done through education. Therefore, I help my community youths and children in education matters. Assist them in difficulties and motivated them to study. If I wanted to leave this village I would have done so long back but no I want to stay her and developed my village and my community because I know how important it is for every one of us to get a stable life.” Today he helps many children and youth in the village to get the education and has become a role model for many katkari tribes. He is also engaged as a part-time worker in Sramik Kranti Sangathan.

3.6 Health Status of Sai Village.

The Health status of katkari community is relatively good as the village is 22 km away from Panvel and 15 km away from Pen and located on the National Highway it makes them convenient to travel to Panvel or Pen to get the treatment, besides that there are small dispensary and private hospital available in the village and, so do the ASHA worker. Major disease found in this village are seasonal in nature, such as malaria, cholera, diarrheal. Beside that seasonal fever also prevails. Cases of snake, scorpion and dog bit are common, especially in winter and summer season. There is rarely any case found of terminal disease.

Case Study. 3 A Tale from the old

Somay Sonya Powar, is the senior most person of the katkari village. Born and brought up in Sai village he is 94 years old and gives some accurate accounts of the village history, according to him he was born at the time when India was preparing for its independences. Mr. Somay is an uneducated person. His family consist of 6 members including himself. Mr. Somay says that his 3 generation has stayed here and they never migrated. On asking the reason for the same Somay bhau says “we cultivate forest land and collect forest wood and then sell it in the village or in a nearby village this never made me or either my family to migrate. I am the most senior person of this village I know how many houses were there before and how many came later. During our time, he added that we never felt the need of migration as were used to go in the forest and gather fruits and other need things. Money was not important to us as we were only collecting thing that is use by us such as raw fruits, honey, firewood etc., later this highway came and divided our land but because of this, there were new opportunities for us such as the factory (Arshiya factory). Our people walk there has a watchman and they got stable they get around 5000 to 6000 rupees a month. Transport was another benefit for us, because of this we can travel to the main town as well my son goes in town and work there as a labourer and he gets a good money”. When ask about the health services and other facilities Somay bhau said it’s good first we were using all our gavti (home remedies) to cure our sickness but now we have doctors. The doctor comes and checks me in my home… (He laughs). Over the period of time we have stopped migrating because we are getting all things we need her, so we never feel to migrating. There were few families who use to migrate, they were being badly treated on the fields, and therefore, they stop migrating. Somay bhau is been active in village matters and also have seen the development of village and it’s dynamic over the period of time.

3.7 The land allocation and income source

The land allocation among the tribes is uncertain her. As the major land owners are the Maratha and Agri community they have major hold of the land where else there is hardly any ownership of land given to the katkari tribes. As the village comes under the per view of Forest Right Act. 2006. The katkaris are given rights over few parts of forest in Sai village, on the basis of Pata. Where they cultivate crops, vegetables and other forest product, but not all the katkaris have rights over the land it’s only for those who were cultivating the land over the period of 10 to 15 years. Besides that, few of the katkari population work as the agricultural labours on the Marathas or Agri, people land few are in the nearby factory as the watchmen or service boy and few people go in Pen and Panvel to work as a wage earn or on salary basis. Thus, one can see that unemployment is not the major issue.

Case study no. 4 from weetbhigari to an Activist

Laxman bhau pawar, a 75 years old residences of Sai village and an activist in Sramik Karanti Sangathan. He was born in a katkari family. His father and mother both were the bonded laborers. they use to work on the farms of the upper caste Maratha where they were only paid 4 ana a day, Due to his weaker family background, he was forced to work with his parents so that he can help his family to run the house. Laxman bhau wanted to go to schools, but in spite of attending the school he was unable to understand what the master (Teacher) was teaching them. They were made to sit separately from the other students due to their tribal and caste status he decided never to go back to such school where teacher do discrimination with his students, but he was very positive about the importance of education. Laxman bhau got marriage at his early age. His parents took a loan of 300 rupees for his marriage which they were unable to pay off. Therefore, laxman bhau was forced to work as weetbhigari on the land of landlord for the period of 9 years so that the loan can be paid off as loan was taken for his marriage so he was supposed to work on as the labourer on the landlord lands. Laxman bhau was not happening with the work. It was humiliating. Whenever laxman bhau takes a leave from his work the landlord use to come at his place and use to bit him and take him back to the work. He was not allowed to take any leaves and was made to work for long hours. He was distress and wanted to leave this job, but he was not having any knowledge, therefore, he was mum… he uses to run away from the job and hide in the forest so that the landlord men can’t find him. He did it for a quiet period of time. During his stay in the forest he started cleaning the forest place where he uses to hide. He started plant trees such as mango and jackfruit and other plants. One morning his landlord caught him in his home and catch his hand and drag him out of his house and started betting him. The other katkari were just looking like a spectator helpless to help laxman bhau. Laxman escaped from there and ran into the forest where he where he use to hide. The news of laxman bhau reached to an activist to be working in the Pen and Panvel region on the issue of tribes. He meets laxman bhau and told him about the way to escape from the landlord misery. Laxman bhau with the help of the activist registered a case under POA, 1989 that made him free from the bonded labour. After that, he was very much motivated by the activist and started reaching to other villages and creating awareness regarding the rights of tribal people and while doing this we have also cultivating the forest land of his own on the same place where he was hiding. He had plant fruits such as mango, cashew net, jackfruits, blackberry (Karvanda), and vegetables such as tomato, potato, chilly, brinjal and other. It has been since more than 20 years laxman bhau is cultivating the land. When the researcher asks him about the importance of land to him he said “I was the landless person but with my hard work and dedication I have cultivated this land this is my land. It’s a source of my existences and it feed me. If tomorrow the forest people comes to ask for their land, I’ll tell them to take away your land but keep my trees and plants here. They all are mine I have grown them they (forest rangers) never did.” today laxman bhau is one of the katkari activist who fights for the issues of land of tribal community and at the same time he is also an environmentalist, who have indigenous knowledge to save and protect the forest and to do sustainable utilised of it. Laxman bhau has right over the land that he is cultivating. It generates around 4 to 5 lacs per annum. This had enabled him to settle at a particular place for a long period of time.

3.8 Cultural Practice

The process of assimilation can be completely seen in this village as almost all the katkari tribes are assimilated and practice the Hindu religion. This has also influenced the culture of katkari tribes as all of them celebrate Holi, Dewali, Navratri, Ganesh Chaturdashi and other Hindu festival. This has also governed and over took the matriarchal cultural of the katkari community. A clear-cut observation of patriarchy is visible, but the practice of bride price is still practiced Women’s mostly kept as the substitute work to the men. Her role is mostly seen as a domestic worker. Due to the outreach of education, the issue of child marriage is almost nil.

4. Findings

In the previous chapter, we have seen the socio-economical, demography or cultural aspects of Sai village. we also looked into the various lived narratives of 4 different individuals coming from the different background. this chapter deals with the details with the major themes and codes arrived from the previous narratives and put forwards the major reason that has disable the migration from the Sai village 4.1 Availability of land for cultivation under the FRA, 2006

The major reason or in other words the push factor from the migration of katakri is the alienation of land. land places and important role in every rural individual’s life, “if one have land one have security” say laxman bhau, he further adds “so do the dignity”. In many cases, the land is the link to the existence of human being and this phenomenon is commonly found among the tribes. katkari due to their migrational history they have always have distanced themselves from the land. Either they cultivate the land of other people as a landless labor or farm labor or few of them have rights over the forest land especially on dhali land.

In the case of Sai village, the availability of land was one of the significant reason for disabling migration. People (katkari) cultivate the forest land under the FRA, 2006. Under the Act, the katkari of Sai village have registered their claims for forest land under the FRA, 2006. Through which they were entitled a certain amount of land under the same act. Every individual who has claim the land has got 2 to 4 hectors of land in the forest for cultivation. laxman bhau is one of them. Therefore, through that, they have got right over the forest land, and this has significantly impacted them in a positive way by giving them a source of livelihood. Initially they claim for the community forest rights they claim was file by many katkari of sai. The claim was accepted by the forest department and through the community forest right every individual who claim got 3 to 4 hector of land for cultivation. The katkari tribes now cultivate the forest land and grows various variety of flora such as mangos, jackfruit, papaya, tomatoes, brinjal, and flowers such as mogra, rose, marigold, honey etc. The total income through farming goes around 4 to 5 lacs per annum that are equal to the annual salary of an average urban citizen. The cultivation done by this katkaris are directly sold in the markets near Panvel and Pen, Therefore, there is no issue of middle man in it. The recent land mark step that has to happen in the Government of Maharashtra has taken is to allocate the land to the tribal if they are staying there for a long time. This discussion has given tribe’s ownership over the land

4.2 Empowered through Sangathan and Education

The struggle for development and rights have always been fundamental for all the communities across the globe.  The katkari of Sai has also gone through the struggle for their existence.  Education and empowerment were not the same for them, but to live a life of dignity was the empowerment and for that, they were in need of education and unity. Mobilization of the katkari village was very crucial.  The katkari of Sai face discrimination on the basis of caste and class, Illiteracy was another factor for their exploitation. They were working as the landless labours, who use to work on the farm of upper caste with very least wage and they face exploited, and harassment by the landlords. Therefor through Sangathan, the katkari of Sai village got educated about their basic and fundamental rights. They understood that unless and until we don’t have land of our own we will be treated like a weetbhigari by the landlords therefore through Sangathan they were able to get land on their name and quite the job of working on the land of the landlord. After the Sangathan intervention, people also became aware of their rights and they understood that to be aware of their rights means they need to be educated there they also started sending their children to school for getting education

4.3 Availability of Resources

To avoid migration, you need the necessary resources such as availability of jobs, means of transportation good health services, and a decent standard of living.  the katkari of Sai village has got all this. Under the FRA they got to land where they cultivate a different kind of fruits and crops. Due to the road expansion, they were emergences of shops, hotels, and factors that provide jobs to this people making them a fixed employer the availability of jobs is one of the major factors that has disable the migration from this particular village. The katkari have jobs opportunities in the nearby small shops, Factory and market areas as this village are nearby the main town the people travel to the main town and get the job. The average monthly income only through jobs is around 5000-6000/- rupees from per family. On few places, they were employed as watchmen, waiter, delivery person and a shop cleaner.  Transportation created linkages to the main towns such as Pen and Panvel. People started selling their goods produced on their farm. Due to this they got a fixed source of livelihood and adding to that they were also entitled to the various government schemes. This was the factors that have disable the migrating of katkari.

4.4 Social Exclusion in local self-governance’s and schemes

One covert discrimination against the katkari in Sai village is they face discrimination 2 level at the level. One at the level of identification of beneficiary and other at the level of participation in level of self-participation. Employment and services where one such place where one can find that major services and schemes are diverted towards the upper cast Agri and Maratha community. This has led to whole katkari of Sai village excluded and neglected. The other discrimination is in representation and politics. The members of this tribes are usually not given membership or representation in local self-governances this way one can see the social exclusion in the governance level and also in politics, they are discriminated by the political parties. They are also socially excluded in term of beneficiary for the state sponsor schemes. The politics in the village is operated by the caste. This situation can also be seen in other tribal hamlets where the tribes even thou well qualified for the post is denied the post just because of his caste. The current deputy sarpanch belong to the katkari community because of the reserve set.

4.5 Discussions and Conclusion

There is always and yet a stigma attach to the katkari community because of their migrational status. The condition of this tribes is more of generalizable wherein we can find the population of katkari in Pen, Panvel, Mangoan, Kolad and Roha still practice the migration as a source of income, this have been pointed out in previous chapters. The migration creates an adverse impact on their life and also push the future generation in the same verse cycle. In spite of number of schemes and services on their place for the upliftment and empowerment of this tribes. There is always a loop hole where in we lack to addressing the outreach of such schemes and services. The state mechanism lack in understanding the grounded need of this people. Hence, it becomes very essential to understand the grounded need and, then come up with a proper integrated plan that can fit their socio-cultural aspects, and can help them to generate a fixed source of income, through a fixed livelihood activities. Sai village present the exact needs of the katkaris for their development and upliftment. The village in spite of facing caste discrimination has able to provide a concreted condition that have disable the migration from this village. The availability of land and resource such as jobs, and a transportation that helps in linking to the main town have become an important tool for their development and also for the reason of their permanent settlement. The life of tribe community are completely depend upon the forest and forest provides them essential sources of livelihood, but over the period of time it has been seen that the forest land that, is use to provide them the source of livelihood has been taken away from them with a false conception of forest conversation and protection. This phenomenon can be clearly seen in many tribal areas. Paradox is that, then this so-called label and protective forest are given to big business men or company to exploitation. The best example is the Nimaigeri forest and Nuclear Power Plant project in Jaitapur (Ratnagiri) where in the amount of the negative impact made by this company on the forest is unaccountable making a huge loss of livelihood. Since from the time of European invasion in India the forest land as always being target and the people living on such lands are labelled as criminals or savages. After 2006 the Government of India had brought in the Forest Right Act, where in the people cultivating the forest land before this act implemented are entitle to claim their rights over the forest, but It has seen that the act has been misused and misunderstand by many stakeholder. Therefore, the Act, acts as the tool of exploitation to prohibit the tribal communities to enter in the forest, which it should not supposed to do. The FRA act has being a major landmark in providing justice to the forest dwellers only if the Act is implemented in its full spirit rather than manipulating it, It is amazing that in some places the FRA act has played an important role in expanding, protecting and conserving the forest with the involvement of the community Therefore for it becomes very essential responsibility of us as Social scientist, Social worker and Human Right Activist to see the Act is a proper implantation and monitoring of the FRA act.

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