Abstract

Even though theConstitution of India provides equal rights and special provisions for women, the status of tribal women in Manipur are not at par with their counterpart male. Nevertheless, women’s role has changed with the advancement of educational status. They are no longer locked into strict traditional practices and customary laws and are actually developing in every domian. This paper is a ethnographic account of these processes

Introduction

Education opens a new avenue to woman. The role and status of educated women inspired others. Subsequently education accredits women to enter job market which was traditionally reserved for men. But gradually women entered the professions which were once considered to be exclusively men’s bastion. Education provides women an opportunity to come out of their household and perform duties usually performed by men. Indeed education is single most important factor which attributed to the upliftment of women status in the society. Public debate on the question of equality between the sexes usually tends to centre on questions of education and employment for women. Experts on women’s studies as well as women themselves have often been prone to take the view that the question of their education and employment is fundamental to their enjoyment of equality and status (Ahmad: 1979: 1435). Education is perhaps the most powerful arsenal of social change. It is the means by which the quality human life can be improved. The type and extent of educational development reflects largely the attitudes, goals and aspirations of the society in which it is nurtured and is also determined by its socio-economic pattern and cultural heritage. For instance in a closed society such as a caste-ridden society, education would be very elitist, with attempt made to prevent access to education for the lower castes. Similarly a society with a high degree of prejudice against women would try to deter women from gaining knowledge. Therefore, if India genuinely believes in social transformation and in the creation of a more just society, it is precisely the vulnerable section of society such as the lower caste, tribal and women, especially from these economically backward groups who should be given a privileged access to education. This paper argued that even though, the Constitution of India provides equal rights and special provisions for women, the status of tribal women in Manipur are not at par with their counterpart male. Nevertheless, women’s role has changed with the advancement of educational status and they are not longer locked into strict traditional practices and customary laws.

Situating the context

Predominantly, tribals in the state reside in hill areas and followed subsistence economy which is agrarian in nature. Irrespective of sexes, it engaged in agricultural activities for their livelihood. Tribals in the state occupied 90 percent of geographical area but in terms of population distribution, they account into minority status which according to 2011 census was just 35.1%. The state of Manipur splits up naturally into two tracts viz. the hills and the valleys. The hill comprises of five districts namely (i) Senapati; (ii), Tamenglong; (iii), Churachanpur; (iv), Chandel; and (v) Ukhrul. While the valley consists of four districts viz. (i) Imphal East; (ii) Imphal West; (iii) Bishnupur; and (iv), Thoubal. Manipur is a conglomeration of various ethnic groups but broadly it can be classified into tribals and non-tribal Meitei. Tribals are spread across the five hill districts and whereas, Meitei are in four valley districts.

Manipur is home to thirty six recognised Schedule Tribes (ST). Tribals in the state broadly belong to three major ethnic groups’ viz. Naga, Kuki and Chin. The tribals represent only 19 seats in Manipur Legislative Assembly out of 60 seats. Table no. 1 gives the population, decadal growth rate and population density of the state as per the 2011 census. The population growth rate of Manipur if found to be higher than that of India. The population growth rate of Manipur in 2011 is 18.65 per cent as against 24.86 percent in 2001 and 29.29 per cent in 1991. While the population growth rate of India in 2011 is 17.65 per cent as against 21.56 per cent in 2001 and 23.85 per cent in 1991. The decadal growth rate of population in hill districts is higher than that of valley districts in the state. Among the hill districts, Ukhrul recorded the highest population growth rate with 30.08 per cent, followed by Tamenglong districts in 2011. The average population growth rate of the hills districts is recorded with 23.97 per cent and whereas the valley districts is 15.33 per cent according to 2011 Census. The density of population as per 2011 census was 122 persons per sq.km. as against 103 persons per sq.km. in 2001. Comparatively the density of population of hill districts is much lower than that of the valley districts; this was also due to the fact that tribals in the state occupied 90 per cent of the total areas even thought their population was just 35.1 per cent. However, the sex-ration of hill districts is lower than that of valley districts. For instance the lowest sex-ration was recorded in Chandel districts with only 932 females in every 1000 males.

Table no 1. Distribution of Population, Decadal Growth Rate, Sex-Ratio and Population Density

Source: Census 2011, Office of the Registrar General and Census Commissioner, India

Status and roles of tribal women

The Constitution of India not only grants equality to women but also empowers the state to adopt measures of positive discrimination in favour of women for neutralizing the cumulative socio-economic, education and political disadvantages faced by them. Fundamental Rights, among others, ensures equality before the law, equal protection of law, prohibits discrimination against any citizen on grounds of religion, race, caste, sex or place of birth, and guarantees equality of opportunity to all citizens in matters relating to employment. Even though the Constitution of India guarantee equal rights and provides special provision, the status of women in every society is not at par with their counterpart male groups and it is also true to tribal society in Manipur.

It is essential to look at how status and roles are defined in a society before discussing in general to tribal women status. The notion of ‘tribes’ as defined by various anthropologists’ particularly colonial ethnographers became synonymous with the word backward, savages, naked people, blood thirty, primitive etc. which are derogatory terms. Xaxa (2008) noted that ‘Colonial administrators used the term tribe to describe people who were heterogeneous in physical and linguistic traits, demographic size, ecological conditions of living, regions inhabited, stages of social formation, and levels of acculturation and development’ (Xaxa: 2008: 2). According to Ghuyre, tribes are nothing but backward Hindus, to which many has contested that tribes were never a part of hindu society, so they cannot be term and put into the lines of hindu society since its differs in every aspect and its characteristics from that of the rigid society whereby tribe enjoy its full autonomy and hierarchy was never attached. In Indian Constitution tribes are officially called as Scheduled Tribes (ST), however it did not defined as to what constitute tribes rather its lies in the hand of the Governor of respective state to recommend to the President of India to declared specific community as ST.

Tribal women per se has not been defined rather it’s been taken into granted of their status and its role. Colonial ethnographer such as Elvin, Hutton, Furer-Haimendorf etc. has described how Naga women looks like but did not defined as to what constitute a tribal women. Zehol argued that, ‘there is hardly any substantial work undertaken in order to understand the concept of tribal women. Interests seem to revolve around the status of tribal women and the problem they faced and not on conceptual clarification’ (Zehol: 2003: 295). ‘The general tendency to define men in tribal society in terms of role categories like warrior, hunter, statesman and elder has little to do with their relationship with women. Women by contrast tend to be defined almost entirely in relational terms, of kin roles as wife, mother, sister, etc.’ (ibid. 295-296). The irony been that women are always look in relation with men and the independent entity was not accorded even in tribal society.

The concept of status and role are closely associated with each other. It is normally defined status in relation to its role and vice versa. R. Linton (1936) defined “status as a position in a social system, such as child or parent. Status refers to what a person is, whereas the closely linked notion of role refers to the behaviour expected of people in a status”. In sociological term status are of two types i.e. ascribed and achieved status. ‘Ascribed statuses are those which are fixed for an individual at birth. Ascribed statuses that exist in all societies include those based upon sex, age, race ethnic groups and family’. ‘Achieved statuses are those which the individual acquires during his or her lifetime as a result of the exercise of knowledge, ability, skill and/or perseverance’. Talcott Parsons (1951) identifies six attributes of status, which are both ascribed and achieved. They are i) Membership in a kinship unit; ii) Personal qualities; iii) Achievements; iv) Possession; v) Authority; and vi) Power (as cited in Zehol: 2003). So, status of tribal women can be conceptualised as to what extend does she hold the power and authority in terms of decision making both in the family and in the public. Of course, the status of women always remained as women since it is ascribed but its role changes with time and space when she achieved or empowered to do/perform even to the extent of what man has not achieved yet. So, status of women can be look and defined also in terms of literacy rate, sex-ratio, contribution to livelihood, decision making power, political participation etc. ‘A role is the behavioural aspect of status. Status is occupied but role is played. A role is the manner in which a given individual fulfils the objectives of a status and enjoys its privileges and prerogative. A role is what an individual does in the status she occupies’ (ibid.). Having conceptualised the notion of status and role, the next aspect is to discuss tribal women status and its role.

Given the nature of egalitarian tribal society, women are relatively better off than that of other society. Every individual in tribal society is treated with respect irrespective of male or female. For instance to cite Furer-Haimendorf (1933) “Many women in more civilised parts of India may well envy the women of the Naga Hills, their high status and their free and happy life and if you measure the cultural level of the people by the social position and personal freedom of its women you will think twice before looking down on the Nagas as savages” (1993: 96). But given the traditional practices and customary laws which to some extend has largely vanished due to Christianity and an advancement of education. Nevertheless, women are not treated at par with men and they are subjected to men and maintained the superiority over women.

Traditionally, among Poumai Naga tribes, women do not have any power in decision making in public forum or in any village body meeting. All decisions and concern for the village and its welfare are all taken by men. Women present in such meetings were invisible. They were confined in family unit when it comes for decision making. Any decision even in the family is always taken in consultation with the head of the household who happen to be husband. Even though tribal women enjoy much more freedom and liberty in comparison with that of Hindu and Muslim society but women in tribal society is also not treated as equal with that of a men. Generally, women are known as preserver of culture, educator of children in terms of discipline, performing household chores etc. In the context of Poumai Naga tribes, women cannot inherit any immovable property and after their marriage they don’t longer belongs to her parents’ clan. In case a family do not have any son then landed properties goes to the nearest male clan of her father’s clan. This is one of the crucial aspects in determining status of women in tribal society as the woman does not own any immovable property in her name and this practice continues till date. Poumais usually followed arranged marriage but eloping or choosing their own spouse is not restricted to both sexes. Widows are allowed to remarry without any stigma been attached to. During warfare, women played an important role even though they are not directly engage with enemy. Women are the one who supply food items for their warriors and they are allowed to stand behind the two warring groups. Women also play the role of negotiator even in warfare. For instance, if the fight became too severe than it is the women groups who comes forward and stop the fight.

Poumai customary laws forbid harming women of both the parties, which shows the leniency towards women. In terms of contribution to livelihood and engagement in field, both sexes contribute equally but there are specific role perform separately. For instance, cutting down big trees are done by men and whereas carrying firewood are done by women. There are also specific basket been design for both sexes. Whenever a family goes to paddy field, it is the mother or the daughter who always carry the lunch for whole family. There is no restriction for both boys and girls to go for dormitory system. It is in dormitory system where one learn folk songs, folktale and socialise themselves and it continue till one get marry. Though woman occupies prominent position in Poumai Naga tribes within the family and the society, there were certain restrictions imposed on her. The status and role of tribal women differs from tribe to tribe. Fernandes and Barbora (2002) argued that women status can deteriorate with uncontrolled modernization and commercialization. Hardly any measure is taken to counteract its ill effects particularly in the context of globalization. The solution to it is not going back to the past but beginning with their tradition in order to update it to introduce the element of class and gender equity. They need a new form of modernization and globalization. Religious, educational, economic, political and social processes have to merge into one to create this culture and ideology. Of all the social institutions, religion exercises the greatest influence in the everyday lives of women in the tribal societies of North Eastern India. Aier Arenla (1988) reveals that the importance of women has completely changed during the past few decades. It is no longer the question what women are capable of doing physically and mentally. Experience has settled the long controversy about feminine abilities and proved that women are fit for much wider range of activities than the traditional role of housewife. It is found that women play a very significant role as innovators and transmitters of culture. The employed women easily mix with the opposite sex in and outside the office. The women were asked as to who should be the ideal decision maker in the family. The answer reveal once again that women want to play a greater role in the decision making process. As argued earlier, with the advancement of modern education, women role in a society has changed considerable and there is not strict adherence to customary laws and practice. Women are now entering into different profession which was once upon a time even unthinkable. Table no. 2 gives the literacy rate by sex. It is evident from the table below that female literacy rate had increase tremendously. For instance the female literacy rate of Senapati district was just 51 per cent in 2001 but it has increases to 68.8 per cent in 2011 census. With the increase in literacy rate, the engagement of women in non-agriculture sector also increases which is reflected in table no. 3. According to Report on Fourth Economic Census, 1998, 27.83 per cent of female in hill district are engage in non-agricultural enterprises which was a huge percentage of labour force give the history of agrarian society which tribals followed.

Table no. 2 Literacy Rates by Sex for State and District : 2001 and 2011

Table no. 3. Females engaged in non-agricultural enterprises by districts and sector in Manipur according to the fourth economics census, 1998

Source: Report on Fourth Economic Census, 1998

Education: Catalyst of women’s status and role

In the 17 th and 18 th centuries women’s were not encourage to get education. Some people believed if women were all educated it would ruin their marriage prospects and be harmful to their mind. Women’s careers were very limited so people didn’t think they needed the education in which man did. Nuns were among the most educated women of the time. Women who wanted to be educated would join the convent to get good education.

Traditionally, women are more backward in every respect in our society comparatively than men. Women’s education is an instrument for liberation not only of women but of the Indian society as a whole. The history of mankind reveals that there was a time when it was not essential for everyone to learn, or to read and write. The life was so simple and the activities of a person were confined to his small village community and that of women were limited to their respective families only (Nirmala: 2006: 1). With the passage of time, the complexity of life also increased. Now activity of the people is no more confined to the boundaries of their communities/families but has tremendously grown in the recent century. The scientific knowledge and the technology have centered the sphere of day-to-day life and culture. But in this process women are backward.

The lack of education is the main cause for which women are the sufferer, more than men. The lack of education means the lack of self-reliance, self-confidence for which women are not able to come out of their problem. So educating a woman means educating a family. Women form an invaluable asset of the nation. To do these manifold duties women need sound education both general and professional. Education is not just a means of social transformation but it is also a source of empowerment that which enables the oppressed to voice their protest and fight for justice.

In ancient Manipur, education was imparted to women in an informal way. Parents were mostly responsible for the education of their daughter at home. Most of the girls were trained by their mothers in weaving and embroideries of their garments known as phanek (Jamini: 2006: 101). To acquire the skill of weaving, embroidery, etc., by the girls before marriage, was considered an asset for them. In modern times many changes have taken place in the society. The old traditional system of education alone is inadequate to equip the women to face the ever changing society. The setting up of National Committee for Girl’s Education in 1959 under the chairmanship of Smt.Durgabai Deshmukh gave a tremendous on the progress of women’s education in Manipur (ibid). As recommended by the Committee on Women’s Education, the Government of Manipur set up the State Council for Women’s Education in 1967 (op.cit). The Manipur State Commission for Women Act, 2006 was enforced in the year 2006. Under the Act the Manipur State Commission for women is constituted to exercise the power conferred on it and to perform the function assigned to it. It is now recognized that women hold the key to social transformation. If India has to achieve any significant level of self-sufficiency, women who constitute half the human resources of this country should be brought into the mainstream of development. This can be done only through education of women and girls. The education level of women and girls in the family, significantly affects the nutrition level of family, child survival rates improve and conversely fertility rates decrease.

Education is the basic requirement and the fundamental right of the citizens of a nation. The empowerment of women concerns women gaining control and power over their own lives. It involves awareness, raising, building self-confidence, expansion of choices, increased access to and control over resources. Women have a crucial role to play in the modern society. The developmental programmes and policies give emphasis to improving women’s social status. Since our country is on its path towards a knowledge based society, women’s education is of much importance. Unless the light of knowledge dawns in the women force of our country, we can never join the community of developed nations. Traditionally, in India, women are respected. So, their economic empowerment will naturally lead to their political empowerment. They can be the harbingers of harmony in all spheres of life. They have great role to play in projecting our culture and our way of life. Moreover, a women is a wife, friend, companion and consultant to her husband, not merely a daughter, daughter-in-law, mother, mother-in-law. She takes upon herself the task of educating, instructing and guiding her children. Therefore, there is a great need to impart the value of education to womenfolk to get the knowledge of human civilization and for the development of socio-economic condition in our society.

Women are way behind men in literacy. Women are still at the receiving end of male chauvinism, barring, a few notable exceptions in politics, management, films and others spheres of activity. Real development cannot take root if it bypasses women who not only represent nearly half of the country’s total population but represent the very kernel around which societal re-orientation must take place. Left in ignorance, women will hamper the progress that needs to be made in hygienic, dietary habit, child care, health and so on. Woman is as much as human being as man, she is equally entitled to develop her abilities, to choose the sort of life she wishes to live and carry on all the activities and assume all the responsibilities that go to make up human dignity. To blossom forth into full human being, women should be given proper education. Education will made women to understand their own dignity, their own complete equality with men to participate in all social activities. Experience around the world shows that educating women and empowering them will enhances the equality of not merely their own lives but also contributes to economic growth, child survival, health of all members of the family, reduces fertility and helps slow population growth. Hence, investing in women’s education is critical to sustainable development whereby the returns can be enormous, generation to generation.

Education plays a vital role in social change. It brings perfection in human life, an upward mobility in social status, a radical transformation in outlook and perception. Education is indispensible component for social and economic development of the nation for any type of state. Education is perceived as a very suitable profession for women as nurturing and caring comes naturally to them. These special qualities which women posses have to be combined with leadership qualities so that they can build individuals and institutions usher changes that are required in education today. If women energies and special talents are not utilized and they are relegated to stereotype roles, the country will be wasting human resources. Educated women have a unique contribution to make in bringing about the change that is envisaged more rapidly. Therefore, efforts have to be made to popularize female education. We cannot feel contented if there is no advancement in the status and conditions of women. For women are the backbone and central point of social and economic progress in the society.

Conclusion

Women and their organization can play a very important role in achieving their overall development. They can play a powerful and positive role in confident building and creating awareness in their daughters and other women to promote self-reliance. Education is one of the most important determinants of social development. Much of the key of the process of socialization now occurs in and through education rather than within the domain of the family. The greater exposure of women to education has resulted in an increased sharing of responsibility within the family, more continuous employment in jobs, lower fertility patterns, and greater participation in social and political activities. Education is a major force in redefining women’s roles and status. Access to higher education can broaden the boundaries of women’s social roles by endowing them with greater skills and resources as well as by transforming their attitudes and values. Education is indispensible for understanding social problems and coping with social stresses and change. No government can afford to sideline its womenfolk and dream of moving forward. Women are central, not marginal, to the making of society and building of civilizations. Women have been part of a process of preserving the past which has taken the form of cultural traditions that provide the link between generations and connects the present.

Education is the catalytic agent for social change. The realization that no progress can be made without awakening women to a sense of responsibility is remarkable. Economic development as well as political stability largely depends on social progress. A developing country like India cannot ignore its women power. We need vast number of trained and skilled women for staffing our services, ushering in programmes of social welfare, toning up administration and balancing the sex-ratio. With more education their efficiency and understanding will improve. The important of education of women cannot be overrated. Women are ready to learn more about the world beyond her home and are willing to interact with neighbours, relatives and friends on masters of her health, her children’s education and income generation and saving.

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