Abstract

Mao Naga is one of the indigenous tribes of Northeast India. They are the inhabitants of the origination and dispersion place of many Naga tribes called as Makhel or Makhrefii in Mao. Therefore, Mao people play an important role in ascertaining the identity of the Nagas. Besides, the tradition of the welfare state ideologies of the Mao Naga can be seen in the homogeneity, equality and egalitarianism as projected in the traditional values of the Nagas. A challenge in a changed situation is that ideals of collective responsibility to maintain classless society have started receding. Individualistic culture has gradually begun to emerge substantially dividing the society into ‘haves’ and ‘have nots’. In the interface of such traditional continuity and transition, considerable efforts have been taken by the government to help the marginalized sections. It is against this backdrop, the study highlights the traditional values of the Mao society and its transition and further attempts to explore into the perspectives and roles of government interventions in addressing the developmental needs of Mao Naga farmers who occupy a low economic position. While government contribution for the upliftment of the marginalized is considered important, it is also worthwhile researching on the extent of benefits by them.

Introduction

The word “Naga” is a generic term referring to a group of more than 66 tribes 1 called as the ‘Nagas’. Mao is one of the Naga tribes in Manipur. Their language is called Mao and also the whole land area inhabited by them is also called Mao. Mao is geographically situated in the northern part of the State of Manipur adjoining the southern part of the State of Nagaland. And Makhrefii or the so called Makhel is the oldest village in Mao where a Tibeto-Burman/Chinese race called as the Naga, Mikriimei (the Meiteis/Manipuris) and Kolamei (Kolamei in Mao language means the plain people. Here Kolamei refers to the Ahoms in Assam only and not other plain people race of Aryans and the Dravidian) are believed to have initially arrived en masse at Makhel in Mao through immigration from South East Asian countries/China. And thus they were the aboriginals of the state of Manipur, Nagaland and Assam in India. On reaching Makhel, a water-shed point towards the south and towards the north, they assembled for sometime and dispersed towards various destinations. Despite the fact that Makhel is the water-shed point, its area and location is not a sharp edged point but an irregular flat area higher than the northern and southern side. While the ancestors of the Ahom group went back towards the north till Assam through the river Chuherii which conjoins the Doyang River through which they at first reached Makhel along with their kindred groups of the Meitei and the Naga ancestors, the ancestors of the Meitei group proceeded further towards the south from Makhel till Koubru Valley where the enchanting Stone Seat of the Meitei ancestor lies 2. The enchanting Stone Seat of the Naga group called Mokhulerii fell down from the back of the Naga ancestor near the river Chuherii and never to be lifted again with all efforts on the way before they reached Makhel. And it was understood that the behaviour of the Stone Seat was signifying that the Naga group must inhabit the surrounding area of the Stone Seat which is flat on the top and a circumference of about one and a half feet wide like Mora in Manipuri and Mokhulerii in Mao language. Therefore the ancestors of the Naga group settled down at Makhel and its vicinity as far as Tobufii where the flat wide enchanting stone multiplied the quantity of rice spread over it in the morning for drying in the sun. The population of the Naga ancestors grew in large numbers that spread 700 (seven hundred) households in the eastern side and another 700 (seven hundred) households in the western side besides the unspecified number of households in the northern, southern and central part of the habitation as received from the traditional folk-lore. Mao people continued to live in the place of their origin. The famous traditional Wild Pear Tree – Chiitebu planted before the dispersion and other stones and monuments are still in existence at Makhel in Mao. Therefore, Mao people play an important role in ascertaining the identity of the Nagas. Besides, the practices of the welfare state ideologies of the Mao Naga can be seen in the homogeneity, equality and egalitarianism as projected in the traditional values of the Nagas.

Most villages in Mao are situated on the top of the hills and the adjoining hill slopes. Preferred settlement on the hill tops in those days must have been on account of security. Each village was bound to be fully prepared for any eventuality from the attack of enemies as Head-hunting was often prevalent apart from the unpredictable attack of tigers and other wild animals. Like most of the tribes, the Mao Naga also lived in confinement mostly within themselves where the resources, goods and service transaction took place among themselves. There existed within themselves a culture of social unit mainly viz: an entrepreneur and worker as well as producer and consumer, all at the same time. The production and consumption among them was household based. They emphasized on cooperative and collective endeavors and believed in the system of distribution in the form of barter system or mutual exchange. There absolutely was no selfish motive and the role of an incentive was fulfilled by a sense of mutual obligation, sharing and solidarity. Thus the socio-economic condition of every one was more or less homogenous. Since the society was characterized by such basic sense of equality and based on consensus in determining what is good for the whole, there absolutely was no distinction between the rich and the poor. Aged people, widows and disabled were respected and taken care by the society. Every one used to be aware of the social stigma of alcoholism, gluttony and hunger .A beggar or anyone in the society suffering from extreme poverty and destitution were unknown. Such reflections prove the words of Chacko (2005) factual, who pointed out that “there are many areas of tribal life which the mainstream non-tribals can profitably assimilate. This includes the notions of wealth, of gender, equality of sex and marriage and of principle of non-interference” (p.16).

Terraced rice cultivation (both dry and wet) is a customary practice that Mao people have been engaged in through generation. It is a tradition of Mao that in terraced fields where pisciculture is not practiced or snails reared by the owner, any one or neighbouring village can collect fish, snails and other shell fish for food even if the fields do not belong to him or his relatives or village. Likewise, in the forest land, any member of the village even if the portion of the forest does not belong to him/his clan, can collect dead branches, dry leaves or twigs to be used as firewood. Also anyone can collect edible fruits and leaves, medicinal plants, tubers and roots, mushrooms, for human consumption as well as for animals. In the same way, a man can hunt in any of such forest land. But fresh wood are restricted to be cut without the consent of the land owner. Such general rights are the customary practices since ancient time which implies that the Mao people lived in a purely egalitarian society with communal ownership which one continues to witness even in the contemporary context.

Besides, other social, economic and political activity of the Mao Naga provides a ground for common existence by equally sharing in common activities under the bonds of relationship. Till date, paddy fields of the Mao have been carved out from the hills only with the sole physical strength of man in digging and carrying the soil and stones out of the field area. It is understandable that to cut down a slope of a landscape in order to form a paddy field would require labours of about a thousand men and women. Therefore, whenever any family is in need of constructing paddy fields, announcement will be made to the village to seek the help of the villagers. On the selected day, the whole villagers come forward to put their workforce together. For the day, the family in turns feed everyone in the field. In a similar manner, the houses of Mao are constructed. All the village people come together to help in the construction of the house while the owner feeds them for the day. This is because, the traditional houses of the Mao Naga are generally very big when compared to the houses of other tribes in the Northeast like the Khasis, Garos and the Bodos. Traditional houses of the Mao are constructed with very big pillars hewn out of very big trees. Such construction of house is never possible without the help of many people. Likewise, a very big mortar hewn out of huge log found in many homes till today (for pounding paddy or rice for baking Naga cake and rice beer), are all evidences of great physical strength of many people with cooperative spirit. Social celebration like feast of merits, pulling of the log, purification ceremony and a reciprocal system of helping each other practiced among the Mao farmers called ava are all indicators of the co-operative spirit of the people. Such systems are not just about helping self by helping each other but a source of great entertainment and perfect social life which also made their existence very socialistic and classless. In case of deaths or if any other ill-fated circumstances happen to a household of a farmer, the relatives, neighbors and villagers help the bereaved family by working in their fields as social work, free of cost. It has been a practice amongst the Mao farmers that whosoever family completes the paddy plantation early render free service to the field neighbours or relatives to complete. Till today, it is an obligatory practice that whenever anybody dies in the village, the whole villagers or church members give moral support to the family by forbidding themselves from performing any kind of agricultural work. They come to the house of the decease to sing hymns, read Bible and recite prayers. Youth form groups to sleep in the mourning house for many days. In this manner, the contemporary Mao society continues to be enriched by their rich socio-cultural life.

Mao people used to play various types of indigenous leisure game, sports and music which all indicate that they could have such entertainment only because of richness and availability of time. At the same time, they were very wise to have such entertainment only according to season and with meaning so as to maintain its value and time for every occupation. The fact that every Mao grown up youth was bound to partake in lochiizii for girls and khruchiizii for boys ( Morung and the dormitories system) are the signs of great unity and sociability. Shimray (1985) calls the Morungs and dormitories as “the Naga Schools” (P-193). Lochiizii and khruchiizii were the most esteemed establishment to impart self-sufficient device of social life and responsibilities to the youth more than from their parents. In such institutions, the age-old social mores and values, customs, folk songs, dances, folk tales, war techniques, past histories, traditions, responsibilities of an adult member in the society, disciplines, desirable habits etc were projected before the youth to prepare them to be manhood and womanhood. Social celebrations like Chiivii Kovii and Zhoso Mozii (feast of merits) make us known of the richness of the people in the community and the existence of a socialistic and classless society. According to Mao tradition, sacrifices are performed following the birth of a child, recovery from sickness, harvesting plentiful crops and livestock. The people of the village are asked by the family performing the sacrifice to feast with the family and to observe holiday from work on their behalf. The family will kill many animals for meat and call people for feasting. Towards the end of the day, portions of meat are also distributed to the families of the village. It consists of a chunk each for all the members of the family to whom a meat portion is given. Such distribution of meat per individual of the entire village is called Chiivii Kovii and Zhoso-Mozii is a feast of sharing the wealth by the rich people with the entire village people/community. It is done by feeding the whole community with the best of food and drink. During such celebration, every visitor will eat and drink as much as he can and is given a chunk of meat at the time of departure. The celebration may last for few days and each day, an attempt is made to call as many people as there are in the village. The Zhoso-Mozii (family hosting the feast) has to maintain the spirit of the feats for one whole year. The meat has to last for the whole year and their wine barrel cannot be empty for even a day during this one year. The family has to keep praying throughout the year. On an appointed day, the village people are called to help him erect a mound of stones in his own memory. He may also find a big memory stone and erect it at some auspicious place near the village. After completion of the raising of the memory stone and mound in the village, the family can relax and experience satisfaction of having achieved the highest social status. At the end of the year, the man wears a special commemorative shawl of social recognition to which he becomes entitled. He can now wear that shawl in public places and meetings. His reputation spreads far and wide. He will be heard when he speaks (Lokho, 2004). Shimray (1985) remarks that “because of the culture of feast of merit none could be too rich” (p. 126). Likewise peace treaty feast is done in a unified social manner. Any village can enter into a treaty by performing the treaty feast. To celebrate the feast, the elders of the concerned two villages will have to come to an agreement first. When agreement is concluded and agreed upon by the parties, one village will invite the villagers of the other village for celebration of the feast. After this celebration, the hosts of the first are also invited to their village for the same. During such celebration, the elders of both will discuss on no declaration of war between them and agreement on mutual assistance when necessity occurs (Ashuli, 1970).

Village purification ceremony was an important means of social control which used to be performed symbolically once a year to purify the village. “On an appointed day, the chief will declare a genna and call for the purification ritual. An appointed person prepares a human figure with straw and old cloths outside the village. An announcement is made that families examine themselves and find out all people, spirits that caused them harm during the year. Each family prepares a list of theft committed against them, evil spirit that caused them sickness etc. and prepares one lance (made of stick) for each of the culprits. On the appointed day, one person from the family goes near the scarecrow, hurling the lance at it and cursing the spirits of all those who caused harm to the family. From the number of participants and the number of sticks thrown, the people will judge whether their village is progressing, disciplined and living in harmony. Accordingly, the chief will promulgate laws to live better lives, work hard, fear God, promote harmony amongst people etc.” (Lokho, 2004). Laws are also formulated during the two types of feasts of merits known as Mozii and Zhoso. The feast of merit of Mozii is celebrated in the month of December and Zhoso in the month of March or April. At the time of such celebration, a representative from each clan will be represented and all the representatives will take their seats in the house of the feast of the host of owner. They will discuss problems, review the customary laws and adopt new customary laws when felt necessary. After the celebration, the headman of the village or an old man will come out and announce to the participants in the celebration of feast of merits about the reviewed laws. Ashuli (1970)

Today, under the influence of modernization, such strong traditional structures of the Mao Naga tribe have become challenged. Homogeneity and equality in the society which made the Mao community egalitarian now begins to erode. Ideals of collective responsibility to maintain equality begins to give way to individualistic culture dividing the society into various strata of society i.e the ‘haves’ and the ‘have nots’. The ‘haves’ consists of government officials, big business people, politicians and the ‘have nots’ are farmers with no other source of income, poor widows, aged and disabled members. The ‘haves’ continue to have more, with their acquired skills, knowledge, competence, authority, fame whereas the conditions of the ‘have nots’ deteriorates who, being devoid of knowledge, skills and expertise respond to survival only through their manual capacity of cultivation which limits their scope of any progress without external force. It is against this backdrop that considerable government programmes in the form of monetary benefits as well as services and goods at local, regional, national and international level have been launched and implemented to uplift the weaker sections of the society. While government contribution for the upliftment of the marginalized is considered a necessity, it is also worthwhile researching on the extent of benefits received by them because the ultimate purpose behind all such efforts is the responsiveness and participation by the deserved beneficiaries themselves.

Objective

To study the perspectives and roles of government interventions in addressing the developmental needs of Mao Naga farmers.

Methodology

The study was conducted in Senapati district of Manipur. Manipur merged into Indian Union in 1950 i.e soon after India’s independence and became a full-fledged State in 1972. Senapati, one of the nine Districts of Manipur came into existence on 14 th November 1969. Though the District remained a neglected area of development programmes for many years, today there are 32 Departments of the State Government and Six Branch Offices of Central Government Besides, various programme and schemes have been launched and implemented to address the developmental needs and to connect them to the main stream of nation. Keeping this background in view, the study was conducted in Mao Maram – Tadubi block of Senapati District. Villages selected for the study include five small villages which have households of below 300 viz: Eshofii inu, Korong inu, Ekhra inu kothu, Robve Solephe inu and Pfosemei Taphuo; five medium size villages which have households of between 300-600 viz: Chobongho inu , Ekhra inu kajii, Ajiiche inu, Pfose inu and Ebve inu and five villages which have households of above 600 viz: Kahre inu, Robve inu, Charangho inu , Chakre Chovo inu and Ethufii inu. Therefore, a total number of 300 households i.e 20 households each from the selected 15 villages who depend on agriculture as its primary means for support and sustenance were randomly selected as respondents – the household’s head may have other means of livelihood and work habits but not as a government employee/ pensioner of government job. Thus, multi-stage stratified random sampling was adopted for the study. At the first place, a comprehensive list of all the state and central government schemes/programmes that had been in implementation in Senapati District of Manipur during 2007 till 2012 were collected. Subsequently interview schedule was prepared and data collected during July 2012 to November 2012 from the respondents to find out the extent of benefits received from such government programmes. Besides, observational notes and informal discussion with some village authorities in the selected villages formed an important part of data collection.

Role of government

The main ongoing programmes in Senapati District during 2007-2012 and benefits received by the respondents from the programmes have been discussed as follows.

Agriculture and Allied Sectors

Mao farmers are proficient in growing varieties of fruits and vegetables. Of late, government has also recognized the efficiency of the Mao farmers. A Regional Potato Farm has been established at Mao. It is the first sponsored scheme from North Eastern Council (NEC), Shillong owned by Manipur state. The farm targets to supply potato seeds to the whole of North Eastern Region. There was also an initiative to grow tea leaves in the region. During the early 2000, Exotic Juice Ltd was set up in Mao by Good Samaritan Social Service Association with support from the Small Farmers’ Agri-Business Consortium (SFAC), New Delhi together with loans from Union Ministry of Food Processing and Industries and Export Import Bank. The latest equipment and machines of the processing plant were acquired from Kolkata based Bertuzzi Company in collaboration with Mumbai based Pennwalt Ltd. The equipments include bulk aseptic packaging and concentrator with aroma recovery technology. The Plant had the capacity to process 2 tonnes per hour which was the first of its kind in North Eastern States. It generated more than 60 employment and encouraged farmers not only from the Mao region but farmers from Churachandpur and Ukhrul districts of Manipur and Wokha, Mokokchung, Phek and Kohima districts of Nagaland also started supplying raw materials. It shared partnership with SFAC and North Eastern Development Finance Corporation Ltd (NEDFi), National Horticulture Board and Banks. The product was sold from 2004 not only in the local markets but also exported to foreign countries like South Africa, UAE and other Middle East countries. The benefit from the products was reported to be huge. However the factory had stopped processing since last 3-4 years reportedly due to widespread destruction of the fruit plants by a serious unknown plant disease.

There are several centrally sponsored programmes as well as state and NEC programmes being implemented in the District for the development of agriculture and allied sectors. From the department of agriculture, schemes like Macro Management Mode of Agriculture, Agricultural Technology and Management Agency (ATMA) and National Agriculture Development Programme (NADP) – Rashtriya Krishi Vikash Yojana (RKVY) and other state schemes were implemented during the reported period. In addition there were other/allied programmes being implemented by different departments. There are 24 Institutions of allied sector in Senapati. Important schemes under the department of Horticulture and Soil Conservation are : Technology Mission for Integrated Development of Horticulture ; Watershed Development Project in Shifting Cultivation Areas (W.D.P.S.C.A) ; Horticulture Mission for North Eastern Himalayan States (HMNEHS) ; Rashtriya Krishi Vikash Yojana (RKYV); National Mission on Micro Irrigation (NMMI) and other smaller programmes. The area covered under the identified potential horticulture area in Senapati is only 23.2% 3.

From the department of Horticulture & Soil Conservation and Agriculture, 1 respondent had received assistance for construction of green house along with sufficient planting materials from the department of Horticulture & Soil Conservation and also planting materials from the department of Agriculture. 53 respondents (17.7 %) responded to have received a single handful of vegetable seeds like soyabean, mustard, pea, lentil, maize along with 2 saplings of fruit trees (1-3 times) during the reported period; 18 respondents (6%) received a single handful of vegetables seeds (1-3 times); and 228 (76%) did not receive anything. Further findings on the utilization of such benefits show that only very few people could make use of the seeds because as responded that the seeds were not distributed during plantation season. Such seeds could not be used for consumption as well because of the chemicals applied for preservation. Some complained to have received old stock seeds that did not grow and others complaint to have received saplings that got invariably decayed as they were brought from different climatic regions. Hence, beneficiaries did not get benefitted as they should have.

The department of Veterinary and Animal Husbandry renders service to livestock and poultry birds for their sound health coverage and to save their lives from dreadful diseases. During the reported period, the department had implemented National project on Cattle and Buffalo breeding. Project activities of the department includes: treatment of animals and livestock; vaccination, training; Artificial insemination AI, and awareness campaign. From this department, 1 respondent received treatment for its livestock free of cost; 21 respondents (7%) of the respondents received treatment by paying; 1 respondent received training to take care of its own livestock; 276 respondents 92% responded of not required the service; and 1 respondent reported to have been refused to attend to help by the department.

Likewise, the department of sericulture in Senapati district had implemented various schemes during the reported period: Manipur Sericulture Project (MSP); Catalytic Development Programme (CDP); and Rashtriya Krishi Vikash Yojana, (RKVY). From this department, 5 respondents (1.7%) reported to have received employment by getting financial assistance for raising Mulberry/eri food plant with supply of rearing appliance and construction of a Silkworm Rearing House.

Other programmes/projects had also been implemented under the allied sectors like Forest Division; Fishery; Krishi Vigyan Kendra (KVK) –Senapati; District Industries Centre (DIC); Industrial Training Institute (ITI); and Co-operative societies but they remained unreached to the respondents.

Department of ST/SC

The department implements economic development programme, infrastructure development prgramme and welfare programme like award of post matric scholarship. Post matric scholarship for ST provides for better opportunities of higher education, increase their rate of attainment in higher education and enhance their employability. From the sample respondents of 300, there were 77 respondents with their family member/s entitled. Out of which 70 respondents (91%) had responded to have received scholarship and 7 respondents (9%) had also applied and responded to likely receive. From this department, 2 respondents had also reported to have received financial assistance for medical treatment of about Rs. 10,000/- each.

Social Welfare Department

The District Social Welfare Office Senapati was set up in 1982. Programmes/schemes implemented from this department are:

• Indira Gandhi National Old Age Pension Scheme (IGNOAPS)

Under Indira Gandhi National Old Age Pension Scheme (IGNOAPS), elderly people above 65 years of age and belonging to the below poverty line are paid Rs 200 per month as pension. Under the study population, 64 entitled members had been found to be eligible for the pension. Out of which 23.4% were covered under the pension and 76.6% were not covered under the pension.

• Manipur Old Age Pension Scheme (MOAPS)

The scale of benefit under Manipur Old Age Pension Scheme (MOAPS) is Rs. 100/- per month. It is given to senior citizens belonging to BPL. The eligible age for female to get the pension is 55 years/above and for male it is 60 years/above. Under the scheme, 106 members were entitled to be covered. Out of which 17% were covered and 83% were not covered under the pension scheme.

• Indira Gandhi National Widow Pension Scheme (IGNWPS)

Indira Gandhi National Widow Pension Scheme (IGNWPS) is given to the widows aged between 45 and 64 years of age and belonging to BPL . From the sample respondents, a total of 33 widows were eligible to get the pension under the scheme. However, only 2 widows were covered under the pension scheme, and 31 widows (93.9%) were never covered under the pension.

• Indira Gandhi National Disabled Pension Scheme (IGNDPS) and other disability programmes

Indira Gandhi National Disabled Pension Scheme (IGNDPS) and other disability programmes had been implemented in order to benefit persons with severe or multiple disability in the form of free and adequate education to disabled children, scholarship to disabled students, aids and appliances, unemployment allowance, economic rehabilitation programme, job reservation and marriage incentives. It was found that 14 respondents have a member/s with disability and are entitled for the benefit. Yet, only 3 beneficiaries got benefit under the scheme and the rest 11 entitled members i.e 10 respondents with 1 disabled member and 1 respondent with 2 disabled members in the household did not receive any assistance.

District Rural Development Agency (DRDA)

The District Rural Development Agency is visualized as a specialized and a professional agency capable of managing the ant-poverty programmes of the Ministry of Rural Development on the one hand and to effectively relate these to the overall effort of poverty eradication in the district. Important programmes implemented by DRDA, Senapati are as follows:

• Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (MGNREGA)

Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (MGNREGA) stands out to bring about perceptible changes in the life style of the agriculturists through its job providing mechanism, providing an alternative path for the farmers as wage labourers . The scheme guarantees a minimum of 100 days of work to each rural household, whose adult members are willing to do unskilled manual work, at the state’s minimum wage. According to the findings, 25% responded of having received wages upto 10 days; 7.7% for 11-20 days; 25% for 21-30 days; 21.3% for 31-40 days; 12.7% for 41-50 days; and 0.3% for 51 days and above. The remaining 8% did not receive any benefit due to lack of interest to work or difficulty to work due to old age or health problems .

Ground realities prove that the promised days of work to be offered are hard to come by. While in some parts of India, there have been reports of where only Rs 60-Rs 70 per head is being given (as against the promise wages of Rs 132 per head per day) on the specious plea that they have not removed the mandatory 42 cubic feet of soil. In the case of Mao in Manipur as against the guaranteed wages, during the reported period, a wage of not less than Rs. 200/- per day per head was paid. This is because the normal rate of wage situation per head per day is not less than Rs. 200/- that nobody intends to work when the wage is to be paid less than Rs. 200/-. Therefore, even if the beneficiaries got only 10 days of wage a year under study area, it would literally be much above 10 days of wage when it is calculated in terms of guaranteed wage.

Out of 300 respondents, only 25 (8%) respondents have their job cards with them. The rest 275 (92%) did not have the job card with them. Some of them have been convinced to keep their job cards with the village authority for fear of being lost or damaged as farmers are illiterate. They have never known whether the muster rolls would normally reflect their actual number of labour days on the field or it would carry inflated numbers. In some village, without any labour and without making any distinction on the basis of small/big/rich/poor/government officers’ families, funds allotted under the scheme was equally distributed among themselves. Some villagers had reported to have received a lump sum of Rs. 3,000/-, or Rs. 4,000/-, or Rs. 8,000/- or even more or some even lesser without project being implemented. Cases have been come across where the funds allocated under MGNREGA got diverted or failed to reach those for whom they are intended. It has been known to the farmers that employment under the scheme is grabbed by the powerful persons, by the friends and relatives of those in power in the village. Skilled people and young men are always preferred. Some women and old people have reported that even when they turn up at the work site are sent back home as unwanted, some even experience payment hassle . In a particular village, where a single religious denomination dominates, the allocated funds of MGNREGA were reserved for the church building construction. That is how households from the minority group in the village were excluded from the funds.

• Indira Awaas Yojana (IAY)

Indira Awaas Yojana (IAY) which was designed to provide shelter to house-less people living in rural areas has been availed by 11 respondents for either construction or repairing of the house .

Department of Food and Civil Supplies

Food and Civil Supplies department is responsible for procurement of food grains and other essential commodities, their storage and supply and the delivery to the distribution centre in the district.

The scale of distribution of food grains and other essential commodities under PDS are:

• Rice (TPDS) : 35 Kg/family/month of both APL & BPL families
• AAY (Rice) : 35Kg/family/month
• Annapurna (Rice) : 10Kg/Head/month (free of cost)
• Wheat (APL) : 4 Kg/head/month (both hills & valley)
• Levy sugar : 400 gms/head/month for urban areas
• : 300 gms/ head/month for rural areas
• S.K oil : 5 litre per family per month

Source: Annual Administration Report 2006-07, Department of Food & Civil Supplies, Manipur, p.6.

Under the Targeted Public Distribution Scheme (TPDS), the commodities namely wheat, rice, sugar and kerosene are being allocated. Some States/UTs also distribute additional items of mass consumption through the TPDS outlets such as pulses, edible oils, iodized salt, spices, etc. MGNREGA, being the most popular scheme in the villages, farmers assume that the commodities they get under TPDS also come from MGNREGA. They are unaware of the TPDS. Although flour is also included in the list of items to be distributed under TPDS, people did not get it at all. They do not even know that they are also entitled to get flour. One does not notice any Fair Price Shops being set up or stock registers put on display. Only 22 (7 %) respondents have ration cards and 178 (93%) did not have ration while some were underway to get ration cards.
Table 1: Comparison of central issue price and village distribution price of rice from TPDS

Source: *Department of Food and Public Distribution (2012)

** Primary data
Further findings show that PDS items such as rice, sugar and kerosene oil were seldom provided to them on a monthly basis as is the norm; the quantities were also far lesser than they are entitled to; and often the price of TPDS rice per kg differs from market price by one rupee. In most of the villages, rice distributed have been measured not according to the kgs but a traditional basket called pisii and sugar in terms of a sweet container which weights lesser than the actual kgs. 85% reported to have received 1-4 times of rice with 1 or 2 times distribution of kerosene and sugar in a year; 13% responded to have received more than 9 times and 2% responded that they had been denied of the items. In a particular village, 1 bag of rice each containing 50 Kgs had been distributed almost every month to all the households. Sugar and kerosene price from TPDS was cheaper by around Rs. 10 to 15 per Kg/liter when compared with the market rate.

It has been observed that government officials did not monitor for disbursing of TPDS items but agents were appointed from respective villages to collect the items from the District Head Quarters. The agents on the one hand had to take the responsibility of depositing money in advance for the TPDS items for the entire village while they were also being given free hand to earn private income through TPDS thus in the process, the whole matter would become politicized. It is alleged that in the first place, the officials concerned withdrew the TPDS items for their personal gains instead of reserving for the common and even when distributed; they take into possession of better quality rice and disburse the common people with sub-standard quality.

Public Health Engineering Department (PHED)

The main responsibility of this division is to set up basic and improved infrastructure for providing or conveying safe drinking water to general public of the district. With regard to creating healthy and hygienic environment, this office also co-ordinates rural sanitation programme and quality monitoring and surveillance of various water source. This office also works in hand with the Investigation and Planning Division of PHED in the field of ground water exploration. The departments implements Drinking Water Schemes: Ground Water Exploration: National Rural Drinking Water Quality Monitoring and Surveillance Programme (NRDWQMSP) and Total Sanitation Campaign (TSC). Total Sanitation Campaign (TSC) is a comprehensive programme to ensure sanitation facilities in rural areas with broader goal to eradicate the practice of open defecation. Under TSC, 15 respondents (5%) reported to have received one incomplete set of materials for toilet construction such as only I small/big plastic squatting plate while some received a small plastic squatting plate together with tin/plastic for roof/wall; 4 respondents (1.3 %) responded of having received 1 complete set of materials for toilet construction for individual household use such as a small plastic squatting plate and a pipe with tin for the roof and plastic for the wall; 3 respondents (1 %) responded to have received 1 complete set of materials for toilet construction for the common neighborhood use; 1 respondent (0.3%) received the same by paying; and 277 respondents (92.3%) did not receive anything under TSC. On the contrary, 32.3% of the respondents, inspite of having a kaccha houses have proper toilets being constructed by The International Fund for Agricultural Development IFAD. No wonder , the Communication and Capacity Development Unit (CCDU) which was set up in 2005 with the sole purpose of implementing the TSC in Manipur is singled out as the poorest performer among the states of the country in implementing “Total Sanitation Campaign”, with only 9000 individual household latrines (IHHL) completed out of six lakh targeted under the scheme till the end of fiscal year 2009-10. (“State recorded poorest performer of total sanitation campaign,” 2010)
Integrated Child Development Services in Senapati District

The Office of the District Programme Officer (DPO), ICDS Cell, Senapati started functioning in the year 1995 with an objective of co-coordinating and monitoring all activities taken up under the Integrated Child Development Services Scheme.

Integrated Child Development Scheme (ICDS) is India’s response to the challenge of providing learning opportunities for pre-school children and their mothers by simultaneously providing all the requisite services at the village level by breaking the vicious cycle of malnutrition, morbidity, reduced learning capacity and mortality. Six package of service under ICDS are: Pre-School education; Supplementary Nutrition Programme (SNP), Immunization, health check up, health and nutrition education and referred service. In the study area, the existence of ICDS in known for serving tea or cooked food 2-5 times in a year or for distribution of 2/3 kgs of rice once in a while besides the services of immunization. From the total sample of 300 respondents , 137 respondents were entitled to be covered under the scheme. And all the entitled beneficiaries i.e 135 respondents (98.6%) except 2 respondents were covered under such benefits of ICDS. Remaining 2 respondents did not receive as most of the time they lived nearby the agricultural fields far off from the villages.

There are other child development services in the district which remain unknown and unreachable to the respondents such as Keshori Shakti Yojana (KSY), Rajiv Gandhi Scheme for Adolescent Girls (RGSEAG or SABLA) , Bal Kendra, Scholarship to dependent children and Balika Samridhi Yozna (B.S.Y).

Other Important Programmes/Schemes/Projects in Senapati District

Mid-Day Meal Scheme (MDM) mandates the school to distribute cooked meal to students so as to boost universalization of primary education by increasing enrolment, retention and attendance of children attending primary school and to improve nutritional status of students of primary classes. Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA) is also another flagship programme for achievement of Universalization of Elementary Education (UEE) by making free and compulsory education to the children of 6-14 years age group, a Fundamental Right. Universal coverage of education never reached the Mao people until the launching of Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA) in Senapati district during 2004-2005. All the children of 6-14 years under sample study except 5 have been covered under free and compulsory education. 57 respondents have their children enrolled in government school and all of them responded that mid day meals of 2-3 days in a week and some sort of free books and uniforms had been provided to their children.

Janana Suraksha Yojana (JSY) is a safe motherhood intervention under the National Rural Health Mission (NRHM) being implemented with the objective of reducing maternal and neo-natal mortality by promoting institutional delivery among the poor pregnant women. Findings indicate that 72 mothers out of 300 were entitled to be covered. Out of which, a good proportion of 58 respondents (80.6%) had received the cash incentive though the amount invariably varies and 14 respondents (19.4%)) of the entitled respondents did not get any money as incentive.

Role of Autonomous District Council ( ADC)

The Manipur (Hill Areas) District Council Act was enacted by the Parliament of India on 26th December 1971. The Act passed by the Parliament paved the way for establishment of six Autonomous District Councils in Manipur. In accordance with the powers vested on the Governor of Manipur, six Autonomous Districts Councils were constituted on 14 th February, 1972 including Manipur North Autonomous District Council, Senapati. The sole reason for the establishment of separate administration for the hills since the British colonial period was to give autonomy to the tribals to administer for themselves. However, it is understood from the data gathered during the interview with ADC member s that more than 90% of the financial control rests with the government. Lack of financial autonomy has rendered it ineffective. ADC does not enjoy popular mandate too. Coupled with ambiguity in its function results in ADC not being able to function for the intent it was created. In view of this, their roles have been dysfunctional.

Discussions on the perspectives and roles of government interventions in addressing the developmental needs of Mao Naga farmers

Schemes like MGNREGA, TPDS, ICDS, and JSY covered all the villages under study area though the distribution of benefits varies from village to village . Educational programes such as MDM and post matric scholarships also covered all the entitled beneficiaries from all the villages. In addition, other programmes like IAY, MOAPS, IGNOAPS, IGNWPS, IGNDS, TSC and others from the department of Sericulture, Agriculture, Horticulture & Soil Conservation, Veterinary & Animal Husbandry have been implemented by reaching only few beneficiaries and did not at all reach in the far off villages like Robve Solephe. Other approaches of government programmes such as Swarnajayanthi Gram Swarozgar Yojana (SGSY) Scheme to eradicate poverty in rural areas through creation of self-employment opportunities; (some respondents in SHGs had reported to have received some financial assistance but did not report to have received form SGSY) Annapurna – a free grain scheme for the old people above 65 years of age who have been left out of the old age pension scheme to provide ten kilograms of free grains each month; National Family Benefit Scheme (NFBS)- where financial assistance of Rs.10,000/- is given to the family on the death of the breadwinner in the family; AAY- a reformed and improved system of Public Distribution System so as to serve the poorest of the poor; and District Industries Centre (DIC)- whose emphasis is laid on dispersal of small and cottage industries in rural areas remain unknown to the respondents in meeting any needs in all the villages under study. Besides other entitled facilities available in the country like cooperatives, credit and insurance remained non-existent to them. The Food and Civil Supplies department which has been set up to provide food items through TPDS at subsidised rate to its citizens is the only scheme that categorize three consumer classes such as the BPL, APL and AAY with a perspective to help the poorest of the poor to get the food items at some level of affordable prices. Cards are to be issued to the consumers corresponding to their categories. Many respondents under study are those who are at the bottom with regard to economic indices and are entitled to get the benefit under the category reserved for poorest i.e AAY. However it has been observed that a household whether very rich or very poor i.e APL/BPL/AAY in the village is not differentiated with disbursing of TPDS goods. That is one of the reasons why one believes that the right of the weakest families (AAY) to have their essential food items gets distributed. We see at Table 1 that the minimum village distribution price of rice is Rs. 10 and maximum is Rs.15/-. More to the point, it has been found that there has never been any programme or scheme exclusively meant for the households whose source of livelihood is only agriculture. Benefits received by the respondents (e.g MGNREGA, IAY, ICDS, MDM,SSA, TPDS, JSY, TSC, Agriculture & Horticulture etc) are also meant for the households of good salary/ government job holders/army/police, part of whose family also work as agriculturists. So for those families, benefits from government programmes become an additional source of benefits/livelihood where as for the farmers whose only source of livelihood is agriculture, it is the only means of benefit.

The study also indicates a very low level of awareness about the government programmes. There has been no initiative on the part of the Government to spread awareness. While the villagers have resigned to the fact that the state had utterly failed to judiciously implement the welfare scheme on the other hand, beneficiaries seemed to have reconciled to the meager benefits and entitlements they have so far received as it is indicative from the general opinion of the respondents that ‘something is better than nothing’. Proper monitoring and evaluation mechanism can tackle such ground realities of recklessness which is also unfortunately not done. During the interview, a question was posed as to whether the beneficiaries of any government programmes have ever been evaluated by the officials concerned, 291 responded ‘no’ and 9 responded ‘yes’. Those respondents who have been taken into evaluation are no other than influential people in the village. Ordinary villagers have never been considered for formulation of any progarmme as well. There are also other attributing factors which hamper proper functioning of government programmes. Though the District Head Quarters has been in existence since 1969, it has been reported that many departments were functioning /located at the state capital. Even essential staff members at the District Head Quarter do not attend the office regularly as expected for want of residential accommodation and on grounds of such other petty pretext. It has been known that for many, attending the office is like a ritual to only sign in the attendance register. Frequent and or indefinite bandh and economic blockade as much as 143 days 4 in a year also underscore the lapses and delivery failure in the system. Naturally, the losers are the poor as officials get paid irrespective of the situation. This perhaps is one of the reasons why the desired results are not achieved. Many officials appoint substitutes and middlemen. These substitutes and middlemen may or may not be qualified for the job profile however, they become very dominant and influential within the system. There has been a general observation that other unforeseen situation also often arises mainly where provision from the government schemes from time to time have to be allocated for the different underground groups. Only the left over that has not been usurped by the middlemen or unintended persons reach the entitled beneficiaries. Hence Programmes/schemes guidelines have not been applied at the grass root level.

Conclusion

The early life of Mao Naga reveals an element of egalitarianism which was deeply rooted in tradition. In the process of transition, certain traditional values which should have been retained have begun to degrade. And, Mao, being the seat of the origin of many Naga tribes, the importance of the role of government in preserving their cultural identity and other traditional values cannot be denied. However it can be said that the role of government in preserving the traditional identity has been left much to be desired. The churches, students’ organisation and other social organizations have occupied the vacuum created by the lack of government effort in preserving the tradition of the people. The importance of government role is also seen in the light of promoting traditional skills in music, sports, games, handlooms, handicrafts and other artisan works which have not been promoted though some have been improved in designs. Adding up, programmes which can extend and explore beyond their traditional occupation of primitive cultivation remain beyond the reach of farmers. There are certain government programmes that significantly contribute to the development needs of the people but they fall short of expectations. T he study further throws a considerable light that most of the well-meaning programmes and schemes are merely on the paper and less known to the people for which they are meant. It is of opinion that had the egalitarian ideology of the Mao Naga being recognized and exploited; the disbursement of the benefits from the government could have equally reached the intended beneficiaries.

References

• Annual Administration Report 2006-07, Department of Food & Civil Supplies, Manipur.
• Ashuli. N. (1970). History and Origin of Mao Naga in Manipur. Unpublished manuscript.
• Chacko, P. M. (2005). Tribal Communities and Social Change. New Delhi: Sage Publications.
• Department of Food and Public Distribution. (2012). Retrieved from http://dfpd.nic.in/?q=node/101 .
• Joujzi House Counting Assessment 2010-11, Mao Maram Sub Division, Tadubi, Manipur.
• Kathipri, O. (1996). The Role the Memai in Ascertaining the History of Makhel (Mekhro). Tenyimia Union Souvenir Special Issue (A Study of the Common Origin of the Tenyimia Communities).
• Krishi Vigyan Kendra (KVK) Senapati Report submitted to ICAR 2013 for National/ Zonal Award.
• Lokho, P. (2004). The Mao Nagas. Ishani (the North Easterners), Bi- monthly Journal of Mahatma Gandhi Ishani Foundation, 1 (1), 3-6.
• Presentation on Consultative Meeting on Preparation of the 12 th Five Year Plan 2012-2017 , Tribal Affairs and Hills Department (with special reference to Autonomous District Council in Manipur).
• Senapati Calling . (2009). Senapati: District Information Office.
• Senapati Calling . (2010), Senapati: District Administration.
• Senapati Calling . (2011). Senapati: District Information Office.
• Senapati Calling . (2012). Senapati: District Information Office.
• Senapati Calling . (2013. Senapati: District Information Office.
• Senapati District Annual Administrative Report. (2007-2008). Senapati, Manipur: District Administration.

Footnotes

1. S.R. Tohring, Violence and Identity in North-East India (New Delhi: Mittal Publications, 2010) xvi.
2. K. Loli, (Personal communication, May 2011).
3. Department of Horticulture & Soil Conservation, Senapati.
4. 2011 witnesses 123 days blockade, 20 days bandh. (2011, December 31). Hueiyen News Service.