Abstract

This study revolves around entitlements possess by Chottanagpur Tribes in terms of available resources, their characteristics and government interventions for different development programmes or grants after formation of Jharkhand state. Through a study of Simdega district which adjacent to neighbouring Orissa and Chhattisgarh and nearby ‘Saranda’ forest, this paper contradicts the development paradigms adopted for upliftment of tribes and tries to provide alternative which could be sustainable and helpful to preserve the tribal identities. In spite of having high literate, minority, tribal and employment in government service, majority of tribes in Simdega district are still earned livelihood through collecting forest products as Imali and Mahua and always in news for high human trafficking. This paper describes, in what way this development breaks the well-established norms of collectivism and truth speaking among tribals and subsidies or grants for tribals are making them dependent on government not empowered as cited. This paper also highlights the potential of economic development based on available resources as forest products and water. Methodologically, this paper based on field visits, several narrated incidents, participant observant and semi-structured canvassing of 100 respondents comprising with different age groups, social and economic strata. Apart from providing ground realities, this paper establishes, how government initiatives is breaching the good values of tribes as truth speaking, community living, hardworking and highly rich cultural traditions. This paper also concludes that through provision of water, proper management of natural resources in general and Human Resource in particular, development of co-operatives, eco-friendly projects could be helpful to protect or enrich good values and bring qualitative changes in tribes of Chottanagpur.

Introduction

As like other tribal regions in India, Chottanagpur tribe contain severe water bodies, diverse flora and fauna, abundant minerals and natural resources and is remained in news for strife, conflict and red corridor. The emerging scenario of large scale industrialisation, privatisation and globalisation for development is contrasted their age-old eco-friendly, peaceful and harmonious lifestyle. The proposed study of Simdega district looks different from other tribal regions in India or Chottanagpur. Despite potential of mineral presencenot yet explored,Simdega has not any industry and people depend on primitive means of livelihood as collecting forest products and low yield agriculture.Simdega has not been witnessed large scale of displacement and land alienation of tribal and has lowest population density and high proportion of land per person.The development initiatives through different schemes since independence in general and 2000 after Jharkhand formation have been emerging as disempowering of tribal and divesting sustainable development associated with Water, Forest, Land and Mineral resources. This has prevented the natural development of organic living, preserving traditional good values and deliberately some schemes have not properly implemented, which could be brought qualitative changes in tribal life.In this context, this paper tries to provide ground realities of Simdega, a high underdeveloped district of India, is always in news for high trafficking. Further the introduction, this paper is arranged in following way. The first part provides sampling techniques and methodology sued for this study. The second part clarifies the concept of Entitlements and draws outlines of available resources in Chottanagpur. The third part has narrowed down to Simdega and provides endowments and discussed problems for their conversion into entitlements. The forth part provides findings through different cases and narrations which contradicts the modern development initiatives and places some alternatives which would be helpful for upliftment of tribes. The last part concludes through the continued discussion on this matter.

Sample Selection and Methodology

To provide the ground realities of Simdega district in terms of entitlements and interventions, qualitative study techniques has under the used. For broader coverage of the issue, a total of 100 respondents have been selected purposively from all 10 blocks of Simdega. Since, Simdega has equal male and female ratio as per census of 2011, the proportion of selected male female in respondents is 50: 50. The respondents are generally common people and from different social, economic and religious groups as tribal, non-tribal, tribal Christian, cultivator, labourer etc. In the selection of respondents following points have been kept into mind:

• Available natural resources, existing problems and potentials in earning livelihood through agriculture and forest products.
• Facts about displacement, migration and land alienation of tribal, the impacts of different development schemes and role of administration.
• Role of Churches or Christian missionaries in education, social, economic and health issues.
• The on-going debates on modern development verses alternative development.
• The other issues as influence of Naxal in district

Further, interviews has conducted and canvassed through some best known qualitative study techniques for better understanding of the issues and to collect the narratives. These techniques are:

• Participant observant, where first author have been associated with a Cooperative active in BudharaToli, KelaGhat;
• Face to Face interviews canvassed with selected respondents through semi-structured/ open ended schedules; and
• Reports published in local newspapers and secondary sources.

Entitlements

As concept, ‘entitlement approach’ presents the process of getting good and services for individual happiness through managing available resources and constraints. The good and services owned by individual is named as individual entitlements. These entitlements depend on both on what individual owns initially and what he/she can acquire through trade, production, own labour and transfer. What individual owns are obtained from environment and surroundings and is hereditary. What he acquires is achieved through his efforts on available resources and these efforts come through knowledge and skill which he/she gets during his/her education and works. Sen also looks entitlements as the ability of people to command commodities, which is legally permissible and prevailing among the members of a society (as quoted in Murugan, 2003). It means the individual entitlements also depend upon community acceptance based on the individual position in the society apart from environment and efforts.So, social, cultural and political institutions have a role in the possessing entitlements of individual. Osmani, further divides entitlement approach in three sets, as endowment set, e-mapping and entitlement set. The endowment set is combination of all resources legally owned by an individual. Resources include both tangible assets as land, equipment and animals and intangibles as knowledge and skill, labour power, or membership of a particular community (ibid).Obviously, entitlement approach comprises with available physical resources, political system to facilitate the problems of transformation between commodities to entitlements, the social and cultural factors prevailing in the locality, and the level of knowledge, both specialised knowledge and educational knowledge acquired by individual.

The environment and surrounding with individual efforts convert resources into commodities.These commodities are filtered through traditional norms, which sometimes promote or act as deterrents. For instance, Cultural and religious taboos may act as deterrents or promotion of individual entitlements. Prevailing caste system in Indian society can be kept in this category. The individual happiness depends upon his/her personal characteristics and on the natural, social and economic environment etc. in which he/she lives. This environment varies from one circumstance to other and also from country to country and from region to region within a nation itself (Ibid).

The available endowment for individual can be categorised as two ways; as private endowments and public endowments. Private endowments are exclusively associated with individual that enables to use of his own labour power, land or other economic resources. These endowments may be in the form of a piece of land or trade or factory activity or knowledge or any other resource from which he could make a living in the way he desires. Public endowments are resources available to individual through the public sphere which can be used at any locality and at any point of time as parks and roads. Public endowments could be further extended as ‘natural’ and ‘Man-made’ endowments. The natural resources as water, climate, and mineral resources are example of natural endowments. Any individual can convert the natural endowments to feasible entitlements by using personal endowments as knowledge or technology. For identification and exploitation these natural endowments requires some man-made endowments e.g. skill or knowledge. These man-made endowments may have been available and transferred to the individual by his predecessors or by the state or the community of which he/she is a member. For utilising public or private natural endowments it is necessary to have man-made endowments available to the individual in an appropriate form. The man made endowments are obtained through past experiences of his predecessors, experience of the others. It may be created or manufactured through the availability of education, science and technology and useful for both the individual and the community. Another set of man-made endowments stems from the fact that as being a social animal, human being have social, cultural, religious, gender and/or caste relationships that influence the transformation of natural endowments into a form in which, they can be used by individual (Ibid) .

If we utilise this entitlement approach to tribes as a general and Chottanagpur tribes as particular, it is said that unlike the modern mind-set, tribals do not view land and forest as merely economic commodities. Traditionally they have built their economic, social and political systems and sustainable management systems around them. Their culture ensures that every family gets enough for its needs. The resources are used according to need and preserved for posterity and women in tribes enjoy higher status as a productive member working in the community owned land and forest. The community resources in these areas termed as Common Property Resources (CPR) is not owned by individuals and which community share for survival. The on-going process of land acquisition does not consider this land for compensation. The modern development or cultureseems to attack on whole life style of tribal, threatening alienation, abandoning their traditional culture based on community feelings and cooperation and growing individualistic (anonymous, 2012). The colonial Land Acquisition Act 1894 considers CPR land as state property and supersedes all other legislations and makes it possible for the state to acquire land under a “public purpose” which is very vague. It facilitates acquisition of CPRs without notification and compensation for corporates. State ignores or has blind towards the deprivation of livelihood dependent on CPR land. Despite of several protective land laws, legislations, regulations, forest laws, Government Policies, Court Orders and Judgements, and Government Orders, the government agencies have been acquiring the tribal lands in the name of national interest. The manipulation of protective laws assumes as constitutional kidnapping. The process of land acquisition has accelerated after formation of Jharkhand and tribals look more unsecure than earlier (Ibid). The development paradigm based on urban lifestyle is up-rooting poor tribals from their traditional land and lifestyle. The nexus between political-corporate is active to grab tribals’ land, minerals and other resources through more than 50 MOUs signed after the state formation. But, the tribals resistance is creating hurdle in the way of land acquisition. The red corridor also falls on this region. It is argued that tribals are naxals or naxal supporters. But it is not true. One example is enough on this regard. Before 1991, only one block Pirtand of Giridih was naxal affected. Now it has been spread all over Chottanagpur regions. It seems neo-liberal policies after 1991 have been main reasons for spreading red corridor not tribals as propagated through different sources. Even after six decades of independence, state administration has failed to establish any communication and absent. The political class and administrations left them ignored. This provides free hand to the naxals for flourishing. The naxals occupied the vacuum and started ruling through terror and extortion and became rulers of areas where police or government officials did not dare to go. The tribals are trapped on thin line between the naxal and administration, exploited and devastated by both. Any meeting called by naxals has an unsaid compulsion for the concerned village to facilitate their demands. If they do this, the state administration brands them as naxal sympathisers and the security forces go after them.The Operation Green Hunt operated in this region is propagated to liberate the tribals from the naxal violence and establish rule of law. The corporate house is also interest to clear this region from naxal influence for industrial investment or mining. The presence of naxal provides convenient excuse for not implementing development projects in this region (ibid).

Despite of high mineral resources, potential of agricultural production, average rainfall 1400 mm and rich flora and fauna, the Chottanagpur regions in India constitutes an area of low agricultural productivity and a high incidence of severe poverty. People live through subsistence farming under adverse and risky environmental conditions. The people depend on non-agricultural income generating activities to earn livelihood during post-monsoon season. These non-farming activities involve low-productivity and low paying work (Barik& others, 2004). After formation of Jharkhand in 2000, new government looked the path of development through industrialisation not as alternative route based on agriculture and eco-friendly. The New Industrial Policy 2001 promised an investment friendly climate for corporates for core sectors as power and mineral development. This could be assumed appropriate in current scenario, when Jharkhand has 38 percent of India’s mineral wealth. It has 33 percent of India’s coal, 47 percent of mica, 34 percent of copper, 24 percent iron ore, 17 percent of graphite. These all minerals fall on the Chottanagpur regions. The attempts of industrialisation provoked the several agitations linked with displacement of tribals. The movement against the ‘Pilot project Netarhat Field Firing range has highlighted the issue of displacement. In 2004 the Union Government issued a notification of 1471 square kilometres for the army firing range and its plans to acquire land for the impact area of 188 square kilometres and camping ground of 18 square kilometres in area across Latehar and Gumladistrict would affect 262,853 people of whom 90 percent ( 236567) were tribal (Aaron, 2007). After strong resistance, government abandoned this project.

Simdega District

Simdega district is located in south western part of Jharkhand shared border with Orissa and Chhattisgarh. It is adjacent to Saranda forest and earlier part of Gumla district. It has ten blocks as Simdega, kurdeg, Bolba, Thethaitangar, Kolebira, Bano, Jaldega, pakartanr, Bansjore and Karsai. The low density population of 160 per km in Jharkhand as 2011 census has only 6.6 percent urban population and Simdega is the only town in the district. 32 percent of 1194.50 sq. km area is covered with forest. Simdega is among high tribal population more than 65 percent and majority of them belongs to the Christian faith.Major tribal groups in the district are Oraons, kharia and Munda etc.The major parts of the district have red laterite acidic soil. The landscape is formed of hills and undulating plateau. Almost 90 percent of population depend on agriculture and forest products for their livelihood. The paddy is main crop apart from millet, mustard and maize. The total cultivated land consist 134024 hectors in which only 16367 hectors are irrigated. The main forest products are Mahuwa, Imali, Chironjii, Lah, Kendu leaves, Jack fruit, Black berry etc. The major rivers of this area are Sankh, deo, Girwa and Palamar. Simdega is one of the least developed districts in India. Agriculture is in a very primitive and under developed state and associated problems includes lack of irrigation facilities, absence of scientific inputs, poor marketing facilities, under developed infrastructure etc. Even though the average rainfall of the district is 1300-1400 mm due to lack of rainwater harvesting techniques most of the rainwater remain unutilised. The Chottanagpur region has rich mineral resources, but significant minerals in the district have not yet explored. The main mineral resources are limestone and stone chip. Despite of having potential natural resources and various raw materials, no single industrial unit is existed in district. The kendu leaves found in the district in major scale but all are exported to other states. The district has favourable conditions of Tasar rearing, Lah cultivation, Timber Industry etc. Trade and commerce are infant stage in spite of it shares the boundary with the industrial town Rourkela of Orissa and Jashpur of Chattisgarh. The major exports of the district are paddy and other forest products. Food grains and other things of daily use are imported on large scale. As part of communication, roads are average developed but railway has not reached to Simdega. Rourkela is the nearest major railway station far from 70 km from Simdega. The supply of electricity in the district is much poor even in the district head quarter. Out of ten blocks only six are (Kolibira, Bano, Jaldega, Thethaitangar, Simdega, Kurdeg) electrified till date. Despite having scenic beauty, landscapes full of greenery coupled with very pleasant climate, tourism has not yet developed and needed necessary infrastructure. Ram Rekhadham, Dangandi, Kelaghat, Ketungadham, Bandurga, Birugarh, Rajadera, Bhanwarpahar can be established as main tourist places (simdega.nic.in).Christian missionaries are very much involved to provide quality education to tribal and tribals particularly Christian converted have got better opportunities in government services compare than other tribal in other district. The most of government tribal officials which occupy key post in Jharkhand and other part of country have linked with Simdega district. The situations of higher education, technical and professional are very poor.No institutes are existed in district for technical and professional education. Only 13 inter and degree colleges are running in district at present. Students migrate to Ranchi or Rourkela for higher education. As like other backward districts in the country health facilities in the district are very poor. One hospital is situated in Simdega town, where no of doctors and other staff total is less than the sanctioned posts. Several functions of district hospital are outsourced. Availability of health facilities to rural areas is very worst. For critical and emergency cases patients are sent to Rourkela or Ranchi. Christian missionaries are extending health missionaries to tribal population but which is not sufficient. People depend on traditional health facilities which have popular in some area. The Simdega district is highly naxal affected. People Liberation front of India (PLFI) and CPI (Maovadi) are active and have more influence than government. If they call bandhs, which is generally happened, district is standstills and paralysed. These are semi political and semi criminal group which determines the fate of people in district in most of cases. One criminal group, PahariCheeta is also active in district. Naxal groups and this criminal group have been always fighting.

Findings from field

Nature has provided enough resources in Simdega district in terms of land, water resources, and forest products that is not properly utilised for development. The major problem for underdeveloped Simdega agriculture is unavailability of water and modern techniques. The availability of land per person is good and has potential to produce diversified agriculture products. Only 15-20 percent rainwater is preserved in small and big dams and reserved for urban population. If irrigation facilities are increased, agriculture will be flourished and it could be done through the 100 percent rainwater harvesting. The problem exists in lacking of government initiatives to increase irrigation areas. The agriculture is neglected in Jharkhand, the allotment for agriculture in Jharkhand budget is merely 400-500 crores. More than 90 percent projects are not completed on time. The major forest product Mahua are only used for making Desi (Local) Liquor in spite of its high nutrients value. Kurdeg block adjacent to Chhattisgarh has plenty of Palm trees. The product of Palm trees are used for making local wine (Tari), which could be used as Molases (GUR). The potential of Lah production is very impressive. Dongajharia village of Karsaibloc has 34 families, enough land, trees and also surrounded by Shankh and Sonajorriver. The village has 2000 trees of BER which is considered best for Lah cultivation. One villager named PotrusSoren is Lah expert and knows the traditional way of Lah cultivation, but his service and BER trees are not used for Lah cultivation.

Since, Simdega district has not any significant mineral presence as like its adjacent district West SinghBhoom, not any major industry is existed. The tribals have not alienated and displaced from their land as like other districts of Chottanagpur regions, but severe poverty and lacking of alternative mode of employment, have compelled people for migration. The incidents of human trafficking are always in news. The nexus between politician and bureaucracy is flourishing the industry of human trafficking. The poor tribal girls are sent to metro cities for job of domestic servant and Aaya. They are sexually exploited and treated as bounded labour. Among 34 families of Dongajharia village of Karsai Bloc, girls of 4 families are trapped in trafficking. Tribals are hard-working by nature, but lacking infrastructure in their habitants have compelled to use hardworking in other places. Workers of tea gardens in Assam areOraons tribes of Chottanagpur region. One lac tribals from Chottanagpur and particularly from Simdega ThethaitangarBlock have been migrated to Andaman and Nicobar and is known there as Ranchi. The people of Simdegahave also presence more than other Jharkhand districts in government services in all grades. RejiDungdung, IPS (had been IG of Green Hunt Operation), BinodKispota, IAS (Resigned and CEO of Jindal project in Jharkhand),Benjamin Lakara, Accountant General (retired) are the few names which are from Simdega district.

As like other districts, different poverty eradications programmes are running as Red card, Birsa housing scheme, virdha pension etc. Villagers get 8-10 lacs per annum in form of government grants and subsidies. This grants and subsidies are against the traditional culture of tribes, which believe in hard working and collectivism. This also helps in growing individualism and increasing laziness. In lieu of providing subsidies and grants, if arrangement are made for providing water, technology, seeds of Lah cultivation, villagers would earn 2 crore per annum. The government machinery has not willingness and desire to provide basic things like water and electricity. They also do not implement good projects for developing alternative mode of development to show these land and people are useless.

Churches have strong presence in Simdega district and access to far remote areas where government can hardly reach. When second author visited first time, Simdega looked different from other Indian towns. Churches looked everywhere and have enough land and infrastructure. They are determining force in Simdega, but unfortunately they have confined themselves religious matters and some extents in education. Tribals presence in key post in government services from Simdega can be credited to Churches.Instead of being an important agent for economic and health matters, theyare diluting the fighting spirit of tribals through confining them into religious activities.

Health is highly neglected in Simdega. The modern health facilities are not developed. The only district hospital in Simdega town is lacking doctors and staff. Private parties are not coming forward in health issues. Patients are compelled to visit Rourkela and Ranchi for serious and critical cases. Simdega has high potential for alternative mode of health. Presence of rich medicinal plant is easing the way of traditional medical treatment. One villager Kishore Triky from Dongitoli, Karsai block, is famous as popular doctor in 15 km radius. He has developed several medicines for chronic diseases as cancer and diabetic.

The on-going debate between modern development based on industrialisation and urban features and alternative development based on eco-friendly and sustainability could be placed in case of Simdega. Since, Simdega has not any significant mineral presence at present, but survey done in some years ago indicate some valuable minerals, which have not yet explored. It is true in several cases of industrialisation in Chottanagpur region that tribals have not benefitted from modern development. The tribal population has been ruthlessly displaced, dispersed and depleted for the sake for mining explorations, industrial projects and construction of huge dams. The displacement in Chottanagpur region presents an alarming picture. In between 1981 and 1985 the Central Coalfields Ltd had acquired 1, 20,300 acres of land, and caused displacement of 32,751 families. Only 11,091families with jobs for only one member of each family were provided (Rao&others, 1998). The displacement and alienation form land divests source of livelihood, for them everything gets disrupted and damaged as custom, culture etc. After Jharkhand formation, state government New Industrial Policy 2001focused on investment friendly created fear among tribal and they vehemently opposed each projects. Even Tata Steel, a big name in corporate social responsibility, could not success to acquire land for its proposing 12 million tons steel projects.In this context, modern development looks failure in Chottanagpur region.

The alternative model based on water and natural resources preservation would be better in present circumstances. One development scheme, Jharkhand water shade mission looks very appropriate and impressive. It would ensure water security and means of livelihood at rural areas through rainwater harvesting, developing agriculture and cattle rearing. This highly ambitious project has been introduced since 2007 and 117 points in Jharkhand have been identified. It has provision of 6 crores allotment for 500 acre and 12 crores for 1000 acre in five years.Unfortunately, not any project has been completed in stipulated time of five years and time extended another two years.Co-operative and tourism can be another better means for livelihood. The experience of first author associated with Simdega Agro Labour and Multipurpose Self-Supporting Co-Operative Ltd substantiates this fact. Simdega scenic beauty, greenery and pleasant climate have very potential for tourism. It requires infrastructures as electricity and well-connected roads.

The underdeveloped region, poor communication, ignorance of administration, deprived livelihood and significant presence of forest have forced tribals to be prey of naxal activities. The main naxal groups Peoples Liberation Front of India (PLFI) and Communist party of India (Maovadi) run their parallel government in district. The district becomes paralyses and standstills during bandhs called by these groups. The attitudes and behaviour of administration increases the problem of people not helping as should be. It further degrades the confidence of tribals in administration. One example will be enough to tell the insensitivity of administration in this context. In last four month, six indefinite bandhs have been called by PLFI on minor issues as presenting his arresting members to concerned court in stipulated time. This type of insensitiveness provides one sided rule of Naxal in Simdega. The numbers of naxal incidents and deaths have been increased after formation of Jharkhand state. This is clear from the following table.

Naxal Violence in Jharkhand

Source: PrabhatKhabar, 26 th June, 2013

Conclusion

Obviously, the path of development particularly Simdega and Chottanagpur in general could not be conceded through the big developmental projects and industrialisation. Severe poverty and deprived living standard in this region has ascertained that tribal life and culture could be preserved through protecting hills and forests and promoting traditional way of living. The nature has provided enough endowments to Simdega and it could be converted into entitlements through proper provision of water and better utilisation of land and forest products. The administration failure and insensitive behaviour has increased the influence of naxal activities. Migration and human trafficking are the major concerns for Simdega, and it should be addressed through creating livelihood at surrounding and it is possible through proper implementation of ambitious project Jharkhand watershed mission and cooperative farming. Modern industries based on high technology and required less man power could not be appropriate for sustainable development. Industrialisation has rudely shaken up the tribals. Their vehemently opposition to modern development projects is a struggle for survival and decent existence of the tribals as human being. Simdega could be ideal for the alternative way of development which has least displaced and alienated. Existing social and religious institution could be leading agent for this ideal development. Churches in Simdega have effective infrastructure and influence among tribal that could be very useful for increasing entitlements among tribals. This looks better option to protect tribal identities with appropriate livelihood at present circumstances.

References:

Aaron Sushil J. 2007. Contrarian Lives: Christians and Contemporary Protest in Jharkhand, working paper 18, Asia Research Centre, London School of Economics and Political Science, London access on 18 th June, 2013 www.lse.ac.uk/collections/asiaresearchcentre

Anonymous 2012. Tribal: Victims of Development Projects- India’s Forced Displacement Policy and Practice, Development Projects and Tribal Displacement, access on 19 th June, 2013 http://socialissuesindia.wordpress.com

Barik P., Edmonds C., Fuwa N., Kam S P., Villano,L., bagchi, D K. 2004. Natural Resources Endowments, Subsistence Agriculture, and Poverty in the Chottanagpur plateau, discussion paper, 47, International Rice Research Institute, Manila

Murugan G. 2003. Entitlements, Capabilities and Institutions: Problems in their Empirical Application, Centre for Development Studies, Kerala

Rao B J., Nongbri T., Tirkey L. 1998. Problems in Tribal Society: Some Aspects, 47, Rajeev Gandhi Institute for Contemporary Studies, New Delhi

(www.simdega.nic.in ) access on different dates